1
|
Restoration of atypical protein kinase C ζ function in autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease ameliorates disease progression. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2022; 119:e2121267119. [PMID: 35867829 PMCID: PMC9335328 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2121267119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) affects more than 500,000 individuals in the United States alone. In most cases, ADPKD is caused by a loss-of-function mutation in the PKD1 gene, which encodes polycystin-1 (PC1). Previous studies reported that PC1 interacts with atypical protein kinase C (aPKC). Here we show that PC1 binds to the ζ isoform of aPKC (PKCζ) and identify two PKCζ phosphorylation sites on PC1's C-terminal tail. PKCζ expression is down-regulated in patients with ADPKD and orthologous and nonorthologous PKD mouse models. We find that the US Food and Drug Administration-approved drug FTY720 restores PKCζ expression in in vitro and in vivo models of polycystic kidney disease (PKD) and this correlates with ameliorated disease progression in multiple PKD mouse models. Importantly, we show that FTY720 treatment is less effective in PKCζ null versions of these PKD mouse models, elucidating a PKCζ-specific mechanism of action that includes inhibiting STAT3 activity and cyst-lining cell proliferation. Taken together, our results reveal that PKCζ down-regulation is a hallmark of PKD and that its stabilization by FTY720 may represent a therapeutic approach to the treat the disease.
Collapse
|
2
|
Dong W, Lu J, Zhang X, Wu Y, Lettieri K, Hammond GR, Hong Y. A polybasic domain in aPKC mediates Par6-dependent control of membrane targeting and kinase activity. J Cell Biol 2021; 219:151883. [PMID: 32580209 PMCID: PMC7337507 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.201903031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2019] [Revised: 03/04/2020] [Accepted: 04/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Mechanisms coupling the atypical PKC (aPKC) kinase activity to its subcellular localization are essential for cell polarization. Unlike other members of the PKC family, aPKC has no well-defined plasma membrane (PM) or calcium binding domains, leading to the assumption that its subcellular localization relies exclusively on protein–protein interactions. Here we show that in both Drosophila and mammalian cells, the pseudosubstrate region (PSr) of aPKC acts as a polybasic domain capable of targeting aPKC to the PM via electrostatic binding to PM PI4P and PI(4,5)P2. However, physical interaction between aPKC and Par-6 is required for the PM-targeting of aPKC, likely by allosterically exposing the PSr to bind PM. Binding of Par-6 also inhibits aPKC kinase activity, and such inhibition can be relieved through Par-6 interaction with apical polarity protein Crumbs. Our data suggest a potential mechanism in which allosteric regulation of polybasic PSr by Par-6 couples the control of both aPKC subcellular localization and spatial activation of its kinase activity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wei Dong
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Pittsburgh Medical School, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - Juan Lu
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Pittsburgh Medical School, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - Xuejing Zhang
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Pittsburgh Medical School, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - Yan Wu
- Jiangsu University, Zhengjiang, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Kaela Lettieri
- First Experience in Research Program, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - Gerald R Hammond
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Pittsburgh Medical School, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - Yang Hong
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Pittsburgh Medical School, Pittsburgh, PA
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Hong F, Yang Y, Chen B, Li P, Wang G, Jiang Y. Protein kinase C-θ knockout decreases serum IL-10 levels and inhibits insulin secretion from islet β cells. Islets 2021; 13:24-31. [PMID: 33719858 PMCID: PMC8018435 DOI: 10.1080/19382014.2021.1890963] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Various subtypes of protein kinase C (PKC) are expressed in islet β cells and regulate β cell proliferation and survival. PKC-θ is distributed in the immune system and promotes the secretion of IL-10, which manifests a critical role in the onset of diabetes, by the immune cells. However, the role of PKC-θ in islets has not been concerned. In the present study, we investigated the role of PKC-θ in the protection of islet β cells and insulin secretion. Fasting glucose and insulin measurement, glucose tolerant test, immunofluorescence, and ELISA were conducted to study the influence of PKC-θ knockout on islet β cell survival and function, and explore the mechanism underlying this regulation. PKC-θ knockout mice at 2 weeks manifested normal serum insulin levels, glucose tolerance, and β cell mass. Knockout mice at 8 weeks show decreased β cell mass, but manifested normal insulin levels and glucose tolerance. Knockout mice at 16 weeks manifested impaired glucose tolerance, β cell mass, and decreased glucose stimulated insulin secretion. Furthermore, knockout mice manifested decreased serum IL-10 level compared with normal mice since 2 weeks. IL-10 injection into knockout mice improved glucose tolerance, serum insulin level, and reduced β cell mass, and IL-10 administration into cultured pancreatic tissue increased glucose stimulated insulin secretion. PKC-θ knockout decreases the secretion of IL-10, reduces β cell mass and insulin secretion in pancreatic islets. The present study illuminates the critical role of PKC-θ in protecting the survival and function of islet β cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Feng Hong
- School of Preclinical Medicine, Wannan Medical College, Wuhu, China
- Hong Feng School of Preclinical Medicine, Wannan Medical College; No.22 Wenchang West Road, Wuhu 241002, China
| | - Yang Yang
- School of Preclinical Medicine, Wannan Medical College, Wuhu, China
| | - Baiyi Chen
- School of Preclinical Medicine, Wannan Medical College, Wuhu, China
| | - Peng Li
- Department of Applied Biological Chemistry, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Guoguang Wang
- School of Preclinical Medicine, Wannan Medical College, Wuhu, China
- CONTACT Yuxin Jiang School of Medicine, Jiaxing University, No.118 Jiahang Road, Jiaxing 341001, China
| | - Yuxin Jiang
- College of Medicine, Jiaxing University, Jiaxing, China
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Liu L, Zhang L, Zhang L, Yang F, Zhu X, Lu Z, Yang Y, Lu H, Feng L, Wang Z, Chen H, Yan S, Wang L, Ju Z, Jin H, Zhu X. Hepatic Tmem30a Deficiency Causes Intrahepatic Cholestasis by Impairing Expression and Localization of Bile Salt Transporters. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2017; 187:2775-2787. [PMID: 28919113 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2017.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2017] [Revised: 07/21/2017] [Accepted: 08/17/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Mutations in ATP8B1 or ATP11C (members of P4-type ATPases) cause progressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis type 1 in human or intrahepatic cholestasis in mice. Transmembrane protein 30A (TMEM30A), a β-subunit, is essential for the function of ATP8B1 and ATP11C. However, its role in the etiology of cholestasis remains poorly understood. To investigate the function of TMEM30A in bile salt (BS) homeostasis, we developed Tmem30a liver-specific knockout (LKO) mice. Tmem30a LKO mice experienced hyperbilirubinemia, hypercholanemia, inflammatory infiltration, ductular proliferation, and liver fibrosis. The expression and membrane localization of ATP8B1 and ATP11C were significantly reduced in Tmem30a LKO mice, which correlated with the impaired expression and localization of BS transporters, such as OATP1A4, OATP1B2, NTCP, BSEP, and MRP2. The proteasome inhibitor bortezomib partially restored total protein levels of BS transporters but not the localization of BS transporters in the membrane. Furthermore, the expression of nuclear receptors, including FXRα, RXRα, HNF4α, LRH-1, and SHP, was also down-regulated. A cholic acid-supplemented diet exacerbated the liver damage in Tmem30a LKO mice. TMEM30A deficiency led to intrahepatic cholestasis in mice by impairing the expression and localization of BS transporters and the expression of related nuclear receptors. Therefore, TMEM30A may be a novel genetic determinant of intrahepatic cholestasis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Leiming Liu
- Laboratory of Cancer Biology, Key Laboratory of Biotherapy in Zhejiang Province, Sir Runrun Shaw Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China; Key Laboratory of Regenerative Medicine of Ministry of Education, Institute of Aging and Regenerative Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Lingling Zhang
- Institute of Aging Research, Leibniz Link Partner Group on Stem Cell Aging, School of Medicine, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Lin Zhang
- Sichuan Provincial Key Laboratory for Human Disease Gene Study and School of Medicine, Sichuan Academy of Medical Sciences and Sichuan Provincial People's Hospital, Chengdu, China; Key Laboratory for NeuroInformation of Ministry of Education and Medicine Information Center, School of Medicine, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China
| | - Fan Yang
- Key Laboratory of Regenerative Medicine of Ministry of Education, Institute of Aging and Regenerative Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China; Leibniz Institute for Age Research - Fritz Lipmann Institute, Friedrich-Schiller University of Jena, Jena, Germany
| | - Xudong Zhu
- Institute of Aging Research, Leibniz Link Partner Group on Stem Cell Aging, School of Medicine, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Zhongjie Lu
- Key Laboratory of Combined Multi-Organ Transplantation, Ministry of Public Health, Division of Hepatobiliary and Pancreatic Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yeming Yang
- Sichuan Provincial Key Laboratory for Human Disease Gene Study and School of Medicine, Sichuan Academy of Medical Sciences and Sichuan Provincial People's Hospital, Chengdu, China; Key Laboratory for NeuroInformation of Ministry of Education and Medicine Information Center, School of Medicine, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China
| | - Haiqi Lu
- Laboratory of Cancer Biology, Key Laboratory of Biotherapy in Zhejiang Province, Sir Runrun Shaw Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Lifeng Feng
- Laboratory of Cancer Biology, Key Laboratory of Biotherapy in Zhejiang Province, Sir Runrun Shaw Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Zhuo Wang
- Laboratory of Cancer Biology, Key Laboratory of Biotherapy in Zhejiang Province, Sir Runrun Shaw Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Hui Chen
- Key Laboratory of Combined Multi-Organ Transplantation, Ministry of Public Health, Division of Hepatobiliary and Pancreatic Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Sheng Yan
- Key Laboratory of Combined Multi-Organ Transplantation, Ministry of Public Health, Division of Hepatobiliary and Pancreatic Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Lin Wang
- Department of Hepato-Biliary Surgery, Xijing Hospital, The Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Zhenyu Ju
- Key Laboratory of Regenerative Medicine of Ministry of Education, Institute of Aging and Regenerative Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China; Institute of Aging Research, Leibniz Link Partner Group on Stem Cell Aging, School of Medicine, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Hongchuan Jin
- Laboratory of Cancer Biology, Key Laboratory of Biotherapy in Zhejiang Province, Sir Runrun Shaw Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China.
| | - Xianjun Zhu
- Sichuan Provincial Key Laboratory for Human Disease Gene Study and School of Medicine, Sichuan Academy of Medical Sciences and Sichuan Provincial People's Hospital, Chengdu, China; Key Laboratory for NeuroInformation of Ministry of Education and Medicine Information Center, School of Medicine, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Walsh DR, Nolin TD, Friedman PA. Drug Transporters and Na+/H+ Exchange Regulatory Factor PSD-95/Drosophila Discs Large/ZO-1 Proteins. Pharmacol Rev 2016; 67:656-80. [PMID: 26092975 DOI: 10.1124/pr.115.010728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Drug transporters govern the absorption, distribution, and elimination of pharmacologically active compounds. Members of the solute carrier and ATP binding-cassette drug transporter family mediate cellular drug uptake and efflux processes, thereby coordinating the vectorial movement of drugs across epithelial barriers. To exert their physiologic and pharmacological function in polarized epithelia, drug transporters must be targeted and stabilized to appropriate regions of the cell membrane (i.e., apical versus basolateral). Despite the critical importance of drug transporter membrane targeting, the mechanisms that underlie these processes are largely unknown. Several clinically significant drug transporters possess a recognition sequence that binds to PSD-95/Drosophila discs large/ZO-1 (PDZ) proteins. PDZ proteins, such as the Na(+)/H(+) exchanger regulatory factor (NHERF) family, act to stabilize and organize membrane targeting of multiple transmembrane proteins, including many clinically relevant drug transporters. These PDZ proteins are normally abundant at apical membranes, where they tether membrane-delimited transporters. NHERF expression is particularly high at the apical membrane in polarized tissue such as intestinal, hepatic, and renal epithelia, tissues important to drug disposition. Several recent studies have highlighted NHERF proteins as determinants of drug transporter function secondary to their role in controlling membrane abundance and localization. Mounting evidence strongly suggests that NHERF proteins may have clinically significant roles in pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of several pharmacologically active compounds and may affect drug action in cancer and chronic kidney disease. For these reasons, NHERF proteins represent a novel class of post-translational mediators of drug transport and novel targets for new drug development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dustin R Walsh
- Laboratory for G Protein-Coupled Receptor Biology, Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, and Structural Biology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (P.A.F.); and Center for Clinical Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Pharmacy and Therapeutics, University of Pittsburgh School of Pharmacy, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (D.R.W., T.D.N.)
| | - Thomas D Nolin
- Laboratory for G Protein-Coupled Receptor Biology, Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, and Structural Biology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (P.A.F.); and Center for Clinical Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Pharmacy and Therapeutics, University of Pittsburgh School of Pharmacy, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (D.R.W., T.D.N.)
| | - Peter A Friedman
- Laboratory for G Protein-Coupled Receptor Biology, Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, and Structural Biology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (P.A.F.); and Center for Clinical Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Pharmacy and Therapeutics, University of Pittsburgh School of Pharmacy, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (D.R.W., T.D.N.)
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Anwer MS. Role of protein kinase C isoforms in bile formation and cholestasis. Hepatology 2014; 60:1090-7. [PMID: 24700589 PMCID: PMC4141907 DOI: 10.1002/hep.27088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2013] [Accepted: 02/13/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Transhepatic solute transport provides the osmotic driving force for canalicular bile formation. Choleretic and cholestatic agents affect bile formation, in part, by altering plasma membrane localizations of transporters involved in bile formation. These short-term dynamic changes in transporter location are highly regulated posttranslational events requiring various cellular signaling pathways. Interestingly, both choleretic and cholestatic agents activate the same intracellular signaling kinases, such as phosphoinositide-3-kinase (PI3K), protein kinase C (PKC), and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK). An emerging theme is that choleretic and cholestatic effects may be mediated by different isoforms of these kinases. This is most evident for PKC-mediated regulation of plasma membrane localization of Na+-taurocholate cotransporting polypeptide (NTCP) and multidrug resistance-associated protein 2 (MRP2) by conventional PKCα (cPKCα), novel PKCδ (nPKCδ), nPKCε, and atypical PKCζ (aPKCζ). aPKCζ may mediate choleretic effects by inserting NTCP into the plasma membrane, and nPKCε may mediate cholestatic effects by retrieving MRP2 from the plasma membrane. On the other hand, cPKCα and nPKCδ may be involved in choleretic, cholestatic, and anticholestatic effects by inserting, retrieving, and inhibiting retrieval of transporters, respectively. The effects of PKC isoforms may be mediated by phosphorylation of the transporters, actin binding proteins (radixin and myristoylated alanine-rich C kinase substrate), and Rab proteins. Human NTCP plays an important role in the entry of hepatitis B and D viruses into hepatocytes and consequent infection. Thus, PKCs, by regulating NTCP trafficking, may also play an important role in hepatic viral infections.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M Sawkat Anwer
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine at Tufts University, North Grafton, MA
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Forteza R, Wald FA, Mashukova A, Kozhekbaeva Z, Salas PJ. Par-complex aPKC and Par3 cross-talk with innate immunity NF-κB pathway in epithelial cells. Biol Open 2013; 2:1264-9. [PMID: 24244864 PMCID: PMC3828774 DOI: 10.1242/bio.20135918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2013] [Accepted: 08/20/2013] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Components of the Par-complex, atypical PKC and Par3, have been found to be downregulated upon activation of NF-κB in intestinal epithelial cells. To determine their possible role in pro-inflammatory responses we transduced Caco-2 human colon carcinoma cells with constitutively active (ca) PKCι or anti-Par3 shRNA-expressing lentiviral particles. Contrary to previous reports in other cell types, ca-PKCι did not activate, but rather decreased, baseline NF-κB activity in a luminiscence reporter assay. An identical observation applied to a PB1 domain deletion PKCι, which fails to localize to the tight-junction. Conversely, as expected, the same ca-PKCι activated NF-κB in non-polarized HEK293 cells. Likewise, knockdown of Par3 increased NF-κB activity and, surprisingly, greatly enhanced its response to TNFα, as shown by transcription of IL-8, GRO-1, GRO-2 and GRO-3. We conclude that aPKC and Par3 are inhibitors of the canonical NF-κB activation pathway, although perhaps acting through independent pathways, and may be involved in pro-inflammatory responses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Radia Forteza
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine , 1600 NW 10th Avenue, Miami, FL 33136 , USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
8
|
The bile salt export pump (BSEP) in health and disease. Clin Res Hepatol Gastroenterol 2012; 36:536-53. [PMID: 22795478 DOI: 10.1016/j.clinre.2012.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2012] [Revised: 05/29/2012] [Accepted: 06/06/2012] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The bile salt export pump (BSEP) is the major transporter for the secretion of bile acids from hepatocytes into bile in humans. Mutations of BSEP are associated with cholestatic liver diseases of varying severity including progressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis type 2 (PFIC-2), benign recurrent intrahepatic cholestasis type 2 (BRIC-2) and genetic polymorphisms are linked to intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy (ICP) and drug-induced liver injury (DILI). Detailed analysis of these diseases has considerably increased our knowledge about physiology and pathophysiology of bile secretion in humans. This review focuses on expression, localization, and function, short- and long-term regulation of BSEP as well as diseases association and treatment options for BSEP-associated diseases.
Collapse
|
9
|
Freeley M, O'Dowd F, Paul T, Kashanin D, Davies A, Kelleher D, Long A. L-plastin regulates polarization and migration in chemokine-stimulated human T lymphocytes. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2012; 188:6357-70. [PMID: 22581862 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1103242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Chemokines such as SDF-1α play a crucial role in orchestrating T lymphocyte polarity and migration via polymerization and reorganization of the F-actin cytoskeleton, but the role of actin-associated proteins in this process is not well characterized. In this study, we have investigated a role for L-plastin, a leukocyte-specific F-actin-bundling protein, in SDF-1α-stimulated human T lymphocyte polarization and migration. We found that L-plastin colocalized with F-actin at the leading edge of SDF-1α-stimulated T lymphocytes and was also phosphorylated at Ser(5), a site that when phosphorylated regulates the ability of L-plastin to bundle F-actin. L-plastin phosphorylation was sensitive to pharmacological inhibitors of protein kinase C (PKC), and several PKC isoforms colocalized with L-plastin at the leading edge of SDF-1α-stimulated lymphocytes. However, PKC ζ, an established regulator of cell polarity, was the only isoform that regulated L-plastin phosphorylation. Knockdown of L-plastin expression with small interfering RNAs demonstrated that this protein regulated the localization of F-actin at the leading edge of chemokine-stimulated cells and was also required for polarization, lamellipodia formation, and chemotaxis. Knockdown of L-plastin expression also impaired the Rac1 activation cycle and Akt phosphorylation in response to SDF-1α stimulation. Furthermore, L-plastin also regulated SDF-1α-mediated lymphocyte migration on the integrin ligand ICAM-1 by influencing velocity and persistence, but in a manner that was independent of LFA-1 integrin activation or adhesion. This study, therefore, demonstrates an important role for L-plastin and the signaling pathways that regulate its phosphorylation in response to chemokines and adds L-plastin to a growing list of proteins implicated in T lymphocyte polarity and migration.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michael Freeley
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Institute of Molecular Medicine, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|