Synthesis of an elastase inhibitor by monosubstitution of arginine-5 with valine at the reactive site in a trypsin inhibitor from squash seeds (CMTI III)

The rescue of botanical insecticides: A bioinspiration for new niches and needs

Crop protection is the basis of plant production and food security. Additionally, there are many efforts focused on increasing defensive mechanisms in order to avoid the damaging effects of insects, which still represent significant losses worldwide. Plants have naturally evolved different mechanisms to discourage herbivory, including chemical barriers such as the induction of defensive proteins and secondary metabolites, some of which have a historical link with bio-farming practices and others that are yet to be used. In the context of global concern regarding health and environmental impacts, which has been translated into political action and restrictions on the use of synthetic pesticides, this review deals with a description of some historical commercial phytochemicals and promising proteinaceous compounds that plants may modulate to defeat insect attacks. We present a broader outlook on molecular structure and mechanisms of action while we discuss possible tools to achieve effective methods for the biological control of pests, either by the formulation of products or by the development of new plant varieties with enhanced chemical defenses.

Introduction of α-hydroxymethyamino acid residues in substrate specificity P1 position of trypsin inhibitor SFTI-1 from sunflower seeds retains its activity

In many complexes formed by serine proteinases and their inhibitors, the hydroxyl group provided by water molecule or by the inhibitor Ser residue is located close to the inhibitor P1-P1' reactive site. In order to investigate the role of this group, we synthesized analogues of trypsin inhibitor SFTI-1 isolated from the seeds of sunflower modified in P1 by alpha-hydroxymethylserine (HmSer) and both enantiomers of alpha-hydroxymethylvaline (HmVal). All the synthesized analogues inhibited bovine beta-trypsin and human leukocyte elastase. SFTI-1 analogues with HmVal and HmSer appear to be potent inhibitors of bovine beta-trypsin, whereas [Val5]SFTI-1 is practically inactive. Also trypsin inhibitory activity of [Ser5]SFTI-1 is significantly lower. Since the electrostatic interaction between protonated epsilon-NH2 group of the inhibitor P1 position and beta-carboxylate of trypsin Asp189 is the main driving force for interaction of both molecules, the results obtained are very interesting. We believe that these SFTI-1 analogues belong to a novel class of serine proteinase inhibitors.

Low molecular weight squash trypsin inhibitors from Sechium edule seeds

Nine chromatographic components containing trypsin inhibitor activity were isolated from Sechium edule seeds by acetone fractionation, gel filtration, affinity chromatography and RP-HPLC in an overall yield of 46% of activity and 0.05% of protein. The components obtained with highest yield of total activity and highest specific activity were sequenced by Edman degradation and their molecular masses determined by mass spectrometry. The inhibitors contained 31, 32 and 27 residues per molecule and their sequences were: SETI-IIa, EDRKCPKILMRCKRDSDCLAKCTCQESGYCG; SETI-IIb, EEDRKCPKILMRCKRDSDCLAKCTCQESGYCG and SETI-V, CPRILMKCKLDTDCFPTCTCRPSGFCG. SETI-IIa and SETI-IIb, which differed by an amino-terminal E in the IIb form, were not separable under the conditions employed. The sequences are consistent with consensus sequences obtained from 37 other inhibitors: CPriI1meCk_DSDCla_C_C_G_CG, where capital letters are invariant amino acid residues and lower case letters are the most preserved in this position. SETI-II and SETI-V form complexes with trypsin with a 1:1 stoichiometry and have dissociation constants of 5.4x10(-11)M and 1.1x10(-9)M, respectively.

Distance between the basic group of the amino acid residue's side chain in position P1 of trypsin inhibitor CMTI-III and Asp189 in the substrate pocket of trypsin has an essential influence on the inhibitory activity

Three new analogues of trypsin inhibitor CMTI-III were synthesized by the solid-phase method: [Lys5]-CMTI-III, [Orn5]CMTI-III and [Dab5]CMTI-III. Only one analogue with L-lysine residue in position P1 showed inhibitory activity of the same order of magnitude as did wild CMTI-III. Two remaining analogues were completely inactive. A conclusion was drawn that the distance between the basic group of the amino acid residue's side chain in position P1 of the trypsin inhibitor CMTI-III and Asp189 in the substrate pocket of trypsin plays an essential role for the trypsin-inhibitor interaction.

Analogues of Cucurbita maxima trypsin inhibitor III (CMTI-III) with elastase inhibitory activity

Three new CMTI-III analogues containing the Val residue in the reactive site (position 5) were synthesized by the solid-phase method. The analogues displayed an elastase inhibitory activity. It is shown that the removal of the N-terminal Arg residue and the introduction of the Gly-Pro-Gln tripeptide in the region 23-25 decreases the antielastase activity by two orders of magnitude. The removal of the disulfide bridge in positions 16-28 and the substitution of Ala for Cys16 and Gly for Cys28 decreases the activity (measured as Ka with HLE) by five orders of magnitude as compared with [Val5]CMTI-III.

Single peptide bond hydrolysis/resynthesis in squash inhibitors of serine proteinases. 1. Kinetics and thermodynamics of the interaction between squash inhibitors and bovine beta-trypsin

The substrate and inhibitory parameters are described for the interaction between Cucurbita maxima trypsin inhibitor I (CMTI I) and bovine beta-trypsin. The data are fully consistent with the reactive site hypothesis and the standard mechanism proposed for the protein inhibitor-serine proteinase interaction. The second-order association rate constant (k(on)) for the interaction of the intact inhibitor and trypsin is high, above 10(6) M-1 s-1. The same value is only 22-fold lower for the reactive site hydrolyzed inhibitor. This result implicates a very low transition-state barrier for the hydrolysis of the Arg5-Ile6 reactive site peptide bond. The equilibrium constant Ka (= 1/Km,f) and K(assoc) change by 6 orders of magnitude in the pH range 4.0-8.3. The steady-state parameters for the hydrolysis and resynthesis of the reactive site have been determined over the pH range 3.2-8.3. Catalytic rate constants, but not kcat/km, exhibit strong pH dependence. The dependence of the hydrolysis constant (Khyd) on pH fits the simplest form of the Dobry equation, indicating that after the hydrolysis of the reactive site, pK values of any preexistent groups are not perturbed. It is suggested that a major factor leading to high kcat/Km values is the presence of Arg or Lys residues at the P1 position. Low values of Km result from a conservation of the ground-state conformation of the inhibitor binding loop upon the complex formation. The crucial stage of the reactive site hydrolysis seems to be associated with a change of basic side-chain interactions within the S1 binding pocket.

New active analogues of Cucurbita maxima trypsin inhibitor III (CMTI-III) modified in the non-contact region

Four new analogues of trypsin inhibitor CMTI-III(3-28) = [desArg1,desVal2,desGly29]CMTI-III which was recently shown to be fully active, were synthesized by the solid-phase method. The introduction of glycine in position 9 (peptide 1) and Gly-Pro-Gly (peptide 2) and Gly-Pro-Asn (peptide 3) in the regions 17-19 and 23-25, respectively, did not change the antitrypsin activity of all modified peptides. All of these substitutions are presumed to be outside the trypsin-binding loop as judged from the X-ray structure of the complex between beta-trypsin and the related inhibitor CMTI-I. Also the fourth analogue which was substituted in all the positions mentioned, exhibited the full activity.

Glycine-rich analogues of Cucurbita maxima trypsin inhibitor (CMTI-III) substituted by valine in position 27 display relatively low antitrypsin activity

Five new analogues of the trypsin inhibitor CMTI-III were synthesized by the solid-phase method. All analogues containing a valine residue in position 27 and glycine residues in some or all of the positions 9, 11, 14, 17, 19, 29 as well as in two cases a norleucine residue in position 8 displayed association equilibrium constants by 6-7 orders of magnitude lower than the native CMTI-III inhibitor.

New analogues of Cucurbita maxima trypsin inhibitor III (CMTI III) with simplified structure

Seven new analogues of trypsin inhibitor CMTI III were obtained by solid-phase peptide synthesis. Three analogues contained only two, instead of three, disulfide bridges, whereas the molecules of the next four analogues were shortened at the N- and/or C-terminus. The elimination of one disulfide bridge in CMTI III induces a decrease in the association equilibrium constants by 6-7 orders of magnitude, whereas the removal of one, two or three amino-acid residues at the N- and/or C-terminus does not significantly affect the activity.

Design and inhibitory properties of synthetic Bowman-Birk loops

A cyclic tridecapeptide based on the sequence of an anti-tryptic loop of a Bowman-Birk inhibitor was synthesized, and demonstrated to be active as an inhibitor of trypsin. Molecular modeling of this sequence suggested an improved sequence which demonstrated an order of magnitude improvement in the inhibitory constant.

Chemical synthesis of new trypsin, chymotrypsin and elastase inhibitors by amino-acid substitutions in a trypsin inhibitor from squash seeds (CMTI III)

Five new analogues of squash trypsin inhibitor CMTI III were obtained by the solid-phase method, exhibiting antitrypsin, antichymotrypsin or antielastase activity. Modification in the reactive site region changes dramatically the specificity, whereas substitution in non-contact positions facilitates the refolding of the reduced form of the peptides and does not have a significant influence on the association equilibrium constants of the inhibitor analogues with cognate enzymes.

Inhibition of human beta-factor XIIa by squash family serine proteinase inhibitors

Many inhibitors of trypsin and human beta-factor XIIa have been isolated from squash and related seeds and sequenced (Wieczorek et al., Biochem. Biophys. Res. Comm. (1985) 126, 646-652). The association equilibrium constants (Ka) of several of these inhibitors have now been determined with human beta-factor XIIa using a modification of the method of Green and Work (Park et al., Fed. Proc. Fed. Am. Soc. Exp. Biol. (1984) 43, 1962). The Ka's range from 7.8 x 10(4) M-1 to 3.3 x 10(8) M-1. Two isoinhibitors from Cucurbita maxima seeds, CMTI-I and CMTI-III, differ in only a single glutamate to lysine change in the P'4 position. This results in a factor of 62 increase in the Ka of the lysine inhibitor, CMTI-III (Ka = 3.3 x 10(8) M-1). To our knowledge, this is the largest effect ever seen for a residue substitution at the P'4 position of a serine proteinase inhibitor. The result is even more surprising because beta-factor XIIa's natural substrate, Factor XI, contains Gly in the P'4 position.