The microtubule skeleton and the evolution of neuronal complexity in vertebrates

Genetic influences on brain and cognitive health and their interactions with cardiovascular conditions and depression

Approximately 40% of dementia cases could be prevented or delayed by modifiable risk factors related to lifestyle and environment. These risk factors, such as depression and vascular disease, do not affect all individuals in the same way, likely due to inter-individual differences in genetics. However, the precise nature of how genetic risk profiles interact with modifiable risk factors to affect brain health is poorly understood. Here we combine multiple data resources, including genotyping and postmortem gene expression, to map the genetic landscape of brain structure and identify 367 loci associated with cortical thickness and 13 loci associated with white matter hyperintensities (P < 5×10-8), with several loci also showing a significant association with cognitive function. We show that among 220 unique genetic loci associated with cortical thickness in our genome-wide association studies (GWAS), 95 also showed evidence of interaction with depression or cardiovascular conditions. Polygenic risk scores based on our GWAS of inferior frontal thickness also interacted with hypertension in predicting executive function in the Canadian Longitudinal Study on Aging. These findings advance our understanding of the genetic underpinning of brain structure and show that genetic risk for brain and cognitive health is in part moderated by treatable mid-life factors.

Towards a comprehensive understanding of the muscle proteome in Schizothorax labiatus: Insights from seasonal variations, metabolic responses, and reproductive signatures in the River Jhelum

Proteomics is a very advanced technique used for defining correlations, compositions and activities of hundreds of proteins from organisms as well as effectively used in identifying particular proteins with varying peptide lengths and amino acid counts. In the present study, an endeavour has been put forth to create muscle proteome expression of snow trout, Schizothorax labiatus. Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) using label free quantification (LFQ) technique has extensively been carried out to explore changes in protein metabolism and its composition to discriminate across species, clarify functions and pinpoint protein biomarkers from organisms. In LFQ technique, the abundances of proteins are determined based on the signal intensities of their corresponding peptides in mass spectrometry. The main benefit of using this method is that it doesn't require pre-labelling proteins with isotopic tags, which streamlines the experimental procedure and gets rid of any bias that might have been caused by the labelling process. LFQ techniques frequently offer a wider dynamic range, making it possible to detect and quantify proteins over a broad range of abundances obtained from the complex biological materials including fish muscle. The results of proteomic analysis could provide an insight in understanding about how various proteins are expressed in response to environmental challenges. For proteomic study, two different weight groups of S. labiatus were taken from River Jhelum based on biological, physiological and logistical factors. These groups corresponded to different life stages, such as younger size and adults/brooders in order to capture potential variations in the muscle proteome related to growth and development. The proteomic analysis of S. labiatus depicted that an overall of 220 proteins in male and 228 in female fish of group 1 were noted. However, when male and female S. labiatus were examined based on spectral count and peptide abundance using ProteinLynx Global Software, a total of 10 downregulated and 32 upregulated proteins were found. In group 2 of S. labiatus, a total of 249 proteins in male and 301 in female fish were documented. When the two genders of S. labiatus were likened to one another by LFQ technique, a total of 41 downregulated and 06 upregulated proteins were identified. The variability in the protein numbers between two fish weight groups reflected biological differences, influenced by factors such as age, developmental stages, physiological condition and reproductive activities. During the study, it was observed that S. labiatus exhibited downregulated levels of proteins that were involved in feeding and growth. The contributing factors to this manifestation could be explained by lower feeding and metabolic activity of fish and decreased food availability during winter in River Jhelum. Contrarily, the fish immune response proteins were found to be significantly over-expressed in S. labiatus, indicating that the environment was more likely to undergo increased microbial infection, pollution load and anthropogenic activities. In addition, it was also discovered that there was an upregulated expression of the reproductive proteins in S. labiatus, which could be linked to the fish's pre-spawning time as the fish used in this study was collected in the winter season which is the pre-spawning period of the fish. Therefore, the present study would be useful in obtaining new insights regarding the molecular makeup of species, methods of adaptation and reactions to environmental stresses. This information contributes to our understanding of basic science and may have applications in environmental monitoring, conservation and preservation of fish species.

Special issue on "Cytoskeletal Proteins in Health and Neurodegenerative Disease: Concepts and Methods"

Since 2016, when we compiled a very well-received special issue on "Cytoskeletal Proteins in Health and Neurodegenerative Disease" for Brain Research Bulletin, the field has rapidly evolved, to a large part thanks to the development and maturation of new methods including super-resolution microscopy. Being asked to create a sequel, we therefore decided to keep the main topic, but focus on emerging concepts and novel methods. As before, we compiled nine articles on the role of the neuronal cytoskeleton in both physiological and pathological conditions. Seven of the contributions present current concepts and discuss how cytoskeletal components develop and are maintained throughout a neuron's long lifespan, and also, how they may contribute to physiology and neurodegenerative diseases. Two contributions focus on novel methodological developments and how these techniques can be used to analyze the structure and function of the neuronal cytoskeleton in new ways. The compilation of the articles makes it clear that future approaches must consider the functional relationships between the individual filament systems and the influence different signal transduction mechanisms have on the cytoskeleton and vice versa, in order to adequately explore the causes and consequences of the role of cytoskeletal proteins in health and disease. We hope that this compilation will help in the design of appropriate experiments, aided by new methods, to test critical hypotheses in the field.

Microtubule Cytoskeletal Network Alterations in a Transgenic Model of Tuberous Sclerosis Complex: Relevance to Autism Spectrum Disorders

Tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC) is a rare genetic multisystem disorder caused by loss-of-function mutations in the tumour suppressors TSC1/TSC2, both of which are negative regulators of the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) kinase. Importantly, mTOR hyperactivity seems to be linked with the pathobiology of autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Recent studies suggest the potential involvement of microtubule (MT) network dysfunction in the neuropathology of "mTORopathies", including ASD. Cytoskeletal reorganization could be responsible for neuroplasticity disturbances in ASD individuals. Thus, the aim of this work was to study the effect of Tsc2 haploinsufficiency on the cytoskeletal pathology and disturbances in the proteostasis of the key cytoskeletal proteins in the brain of a TSC mouse model of ASD. Western-blot analysis indicated significant brain-structure-dependent abnormalities in the microtubule-associated protein Tau (MAP-Tau), and reduced MAP1B and neurofilament light (NF-L) protein level in 2-month-old male B6;129S4-Tsc2tm1Djk/J mice. Alongside, pathological irregularities in the ultrastructure of both MT and neurofilament (NFL) networks as well as swelling of the nerve endings were demonstrated. These changes in the level of key cytoskeletal proteins in the brain of the autistic-like TSC mice suggest the possible molecular mechanisms responsible for neuroplasticity alterations in the ASD brain.

The regulation of host cytoskeleton during SARS-CoV-2 infection in the nervous system

The global economy and public health are currently under enormous pressure since the outbreak of COVID-19. Apart from respiratory discomfort, a subpopulation of COVID-19 patients exhibits neurological symptoms such as headache, myalgia, and loss of smell. Some have even shown encephalitis and necrotizing hemorrhagic encephalopathy. The cytoskeleton of nerve cells changes drastically in these pathologies, indicating that the cytoskeleton and its related proteins are closely related to the pathogenesis of nervous system diseases. In this review, we present the up-to-date association between host cytoskeleton and coronavirus infection in the context of the nervous system. We systematically summarize cytoskeleton-related pathogen-host interactions in both the peripheral and central nervous systems, hoping to contribute to the development of clinical treatment in COVID-19 patients.

Evolutionary perspective of Big tau structure: 4a exon variants of MAPT

The MAPT gene encoding the microtubule-associated protein tau can generate multiple isoforms by alternative splicing giving rise to proteins which are differentially expressed in specific areas of the nervous system and at different developmental stages. Tau plays important roles in modulating microtubule dynamics, axonal transport, synaptic plasticity, and DNA repair, and has also been associated with neurodegenerative diseases (tauopathies) including Alzheimer's disease and frontotemporal dementia. A unique high-molecular-weight isoform of tau, originally found to be expressed in the peripheral nervous system and projecting neurons, has been termed Big tau and has been shown to uniquely contain the large exon 4a that significantly increases the size and 3D structure of tau. With little progress since the original discovery of Big tau, more than 25 years ago, we have now completed a comprehensive comparative study to analyze the structure of the MAPT gene against available databases with respect to the composition of the tau exons as they evolved from early vertebrates to primates and human. We focused the analysis on the evolution of the 4a exon variants and their homology relative to humans. We discovered that the 4a exon defining Big tau appears to be present early in vertebrate evolution as a large insert that dramatically changed the size of the tau protein with low sequence conservation despite a stable size range of about 250aa, and in some species a larger 4a-L exon of 355aa. We suggest that 4a exon variants evolved independently in different species by an exonization process using new alternative splicing to address the growing complexities of the evolving nervous systems. Thus, the appearance of a significantly larger isoform of tau independently repeated itself multiple times during evolution, accentuating the need across vertebrate species for an elongated domain that likely endows Big tau with novel physiological functions as well as properties related to neurodegeneration.

Alterations in Cerebellar Microtubule Cytoskeletal Network in a ValproicAcid-Induced Rat Model of Autism Spectrum Disorders

Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are neurodevelopmental diseases characterised by deficits in social communication, restricted interests, and repetitive behaviours. The growing body of evidence points to a role for cerebellar changes in ASD pathology. Some of the findings suggest that not only motor problems but also social deficits, repetitive behaviours, and mental inflexibility associated with ASD are connected with damage to the cerebellum. However, the understanding of this brain structure's functions in ASD pathology needs future investigations. Therefore, in this study, we generated a rodent model of ASD through a single prenatal administration of valproic acid (VPA) into pregnant rats, followed by cerebellar morphological studies of the offspring, focusing on the alterations of key cytoskeletal elements. The expression (Western blot) of α/β-tubulin and the major neuronal MT-associated proteins (MAP) such as MAP-Tau and MAP1B, MAP2, MAP6 (STOP) along with actin-crosslinking αII-spectrin and neurofilament light polypeptide (NF-L) was investigated. We found that maternal exposure to VPA induces a significant decrease in the protein levels of α/β-tubulin, MAP-Tau, MAP1B, MAP2, and αII-spectrin. Moreover, excessive MAP-Tau phosphorylation at (Ser396) along with key Tau-kinases activation was indicated. Immunohistochemical staining showed chromatolysis in the cerebellum of autistic-like rats and loss of Purkinje cells shedding light on one of the possible molecular mechanisms underpinning neuroplasticity alterations in the ASD brain.

Rodlet cells in kidney of goldfish (Carassius auratus, Linnaeus 1758): A light and confocal microscopy study

Rodlet cells (RCs) have always been an enigma for scientists. RCs have been given a variety of activities over the years, including ion transport, osmoregulation, and sensory function. These cells, presumably as members of the granulocyte line, are present only in teleosts and play a role in the innate immune response. RCs are migratory cells found in a variety of organs, including skin, vascular, digestive, uropoietic, reproductive, and respiratory systems, and present distinct physical properties that make them easily recognizable in tissues and organs. The development of RCs can be divided into four stages: granular, transitional, mature, and ruptured, having different morphological characteristics. Our study aims to characterize the different stages of these cells by histomorphological and histochemical techniques. Furthermore, we characterized these cells at all stages with peroxidase and fluorescence immunohistochemical techniques using different antibodies: S100, tubulin, α-SMA, piscidin, and for the first time TLR-2. From our results, the immunoreactivity of these cells to the antibodies performed may confirm that RCs play a role in fish defense mechanisms, helping to expand the state of the art on immunology and immune cells of teleosts.

Microtubule-modulating Agents in the Fight Against Neurodegeneration: Will it ever Work?

The microtubule skeleton plays an essential role in nerve cells as the most important structural determinant of morphology and as a highway for axonal transport processes. Many neurodegenerative diseases are characterized by changes in the structure and organization of microtubules and microtubule-regulating proteins such as the microtubule-associated protein tau, which exhibits characteristic changes in a whole class of diseases collectively referred to as tauopathies. Changes in the dynamics of microtubules appear to occur early under neurodegenerative conditions and are also likely to contribute to age-related dysfunction of neurons. Thus, modulating microtubule dynamics and correcting impaired microtubule stability can be a useful neuroprotective strategy to counteract the disruption of the microtubule system in disease and aging. In this article, we review current microtubule- directed approaches for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases with microtubules as a drug target, tau as a drug target, and post-translational modifications as potential modifiers of the microtubule system. We discuss limitations of the approaches that can be traced back to the rather unspecific mechanism of action, which causes undesirable side effects in non-neuronal cell types or which are due to the disruption of non-microtubule-related interactions. We also develop some thoughts on how the specificity of the approaches can be improved and what further targets could be used for modulating substances.

Testosterone Influence on Microtubule-Associated Proteins and Spine Density in Hippocampus: Implications on Learning and Memory

The thorny protrusions or spines increase the neuronal surface area, facilitate synaptic interconnections among neurons, and play an essential role in the hippocampus. Increasing evidence suggests that testosterone, the gonadal hormone, plays an important role in neurogenesis and synaptic plasticity. The role of testosterone on microtubule-associated proteins on dendritic neurite stability in the hippocampus and its impact on learning disability is not elucidated. Adult male Wistar albino rats were randomly selected for the control, castrated, castrated + testosterone, and control + testosterone groups. Bilateral orchidectomy was done, and the testosterone propionate was administered during the entire trial period, i.e., 14 days. The learning assessments were done using working/reference memory versions of the 8-arm radial maze and hippocampal tissues processed for histological and protein expressions. There were reduced expressions of microtubule-associated protein 2 (MAP2), postsynaptic density protein 95 (PSD95), and androgen receptor (AR) and increased expression of pTau in the castrated group. Conversely, the expression of MAP2, PSD95, and AR was increased, and the pTau expression was reduced in the hippocampus of the castrated rat administrated with testosterone. Androgen-depleted rats showed impaired synaptic plasticity in the hippocampus associated with contracted microtubule dynamics. Along with learning disability, there was an increased number of reference memory errors and working memory errors in castrated rats. Observations suggest that androgen regulates expression of neural tissue-specific MAPs and plays a vital role in hippocampus synaptic plasticity and that a similar mechanism may underlie neurological disorders in aging and hypogonadal men.

Alterations in Tau Protein Level and Phosphorylation State in the Brain of the Autistic-Like Rats Induced by Prenatal Exposure to Valproic Acid

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental condition characterized by deficient social interaction and communication besides repetitive, stereotyped behaviours. A characteristic feature of ASD is altered dendritic spine density and morphology associated with synaptic plasticity disturbances. Since microtubules (MTs) regulate dendritic spine morphology and play an important role in spine development and plasticity the aim of the present study was to investigate the alterations in the content of neuronal α/β-tubulin and Tau protein level as well as phosphorylation state in the valproic acid (VPA)-induced rat model of autism. Our results indicated that maternal exposure to VPA induces: (1) decrease the level of α/β-tubulin along with Tau accumulation in the hippocampus and cerebral cortex; (2) excessive Tau phosphorylation and activation of Tau-kinases: CDK5, ERK1/2, and p70S6K in the cerebral cortex; (3) up-regulation of mTOR kinase-dependent signalling in the hippocampus and cerebral cortex of adolescent rat offspring. Moreover, immunohistochemical staining showed histopathological changes in neurons (chromatolysis) in both analysed brain structures of rats prenatally exposed to VPA. The observed changes in Tau protein together with an excessive decrease in α/β-tubulin level may suggest destabilization and thus dysfunction of the MT cytoskeleton network, which in consequence may lead to the disturbance in synaptic plasticity and the development of autistic-like behaviours.

Much More Than a Cytoskeletal Protein: Physiological and Pathological Functions of the Non-microtubule Binding Region of Tau

Tau protein (MAPT) is classified as a microtubule-associated protein (MAP) and is believed to regulate the axonal microtubule arrangement. It belongs to the tau/MAP2/MAP4 family of MAPs that have a similar microtubule binding region at their carboxy-terminal half. In tauopathies, such as Alzheimer's disease, tau is distributed more in the somatodendritic compartment, where it aggregates into filamentous structures, the formation of which correlates with cognitive impairments in patients. While microtubules are the dominant interaction partners of tau under physiological conditions, tau has many additional interaction partners that can contribute to its physiological and pathological role. In particular, the amino-terminal non-microtubule binding domain (N-terminal projection region, NTR) of tau interacts with many partners that are involved in membrane organization. The NTR contains intrinsically disordered regions (IDRs) that show a strong evolutionary increase in the disorder and may have been the basis for the development of new, tau-specific interactions. In this review we discuss the functional organization of the tau protein and the special features of the tau non-microtubule binding region also in the connection with the results of Tau KO models. We consider possible physiological and pathological functions of tau's non-microtubule interactions, which could indicate that interactions mediated by tau's NTR and regulated by far-reaching functional interactions of the PRR and the extreme C-terminus of tau contribute to the pathological processes.

New C-Terminal Conserved Regions of Tafazzin, a Catalyst of Cardiolipin Remodeling

Cardiolipin interacts with many proteins of the mitochondrial inner membrane and, together with cytochrome C and creatine kinase, activates them. It can be considered as an integrating factor for components of the mitochondrial respiratory chain, which provides for an efficient transfer of electrons and protons. The major, if not the only, factor of cardiolipin maturation is tafazzin. Variations of isoform proportions of this enzyme can cause severe diseases such as Barth syndrome. Using bioinformatic methods, we have found conserved C-terminal regions in many tafazzin isoforms and identified new mammalian species that acquired exon 5 as well as rare occasions of intron retention between exons 8 and 9. The regions in the C-terminal part arise from frameshifts relative to the full-length TAZ transcript after skipping exon 9 or retention of the intron between exons 10 and 11. These modifications demonstrate specific distribution among the orders of mammals. The dependence of the species maximum lifespan, body weight, and mitochondrial metabolic rate on the modifications has been demonstrated. Arguably, unconventional tafazzin isoforms provide for the optimal balance between the increased biochemical activity of mitochondria (resulting from specific environmental or nutritional conditions) and lifespan maintenance; and the functional role of such isoforms is linked to the modification of the primary and secondary structures at their C-termini.

The Evolution of Tau Phosphorylation and Interactions

Tau is a neuronal microtubule-associated protein (MAP) that is involved in the regulation of axonal microtubule assembly. However, as a protein with intrinsically disordered regions (IDRs), tau also interacts with many other partners in addition to microtubules. Phosphorylation at selected sites modulates tau's various intracellular interactions and regulates the properties of IDRs. In Alzheimer's disease (AD) and other tauopathies, tau exhibits pathologically increased phosphorylation (hyperphosphorylation) at selected sites and aggregates into neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs). By bioinformatics means, we tested the hypothesis that the sequence of tau has changed during the vertebrate evolution in a way that novel interactions developed and also the phosphorylation pattern was affected, which made tau prone to the development of tauopathies. We report that distinct regions of tau show functional specialization in their molecular interactions. We found that tau's amino-terminal region, which is involved in biological processes related to "membrane organization" and "regulation of apoptosis," exhibited a strong evolutionary increase in protein disorder providing the basis for the development of novel interactions. We observed that the predicted phosphorylation sites have changed during evolution in a region-specific manner, and in some cases the overall number of phosphorylation sites increased owing to the formation of clusters of phosphorylatable residues. In contrast, disease-specific hyperphosphorylated sites remained highly conserved. The data indicate that novel, non-microtubule related tau interactions developed during evolution and suggest that the biological processes, which are mediated by these interactions, are of pathological relevance. Furthermore, the data indicate that predicted phosphorylation sites in some regions of tau, including a cluster of phosphorylatable residues in the alternatively spliced exon 2, have changed during evolution. In view of the "antagonistic pleiotropy hypothesis" it may be worth to take disease-associated phosphosites with low evolutionary conservation as relevant biomarkers into consideration.