Effects of Fatigue on Throwing Performance in Experienced Team Handball Players

Reliability and measurement error of tests used for the assessment of throwing performance in overhead athletes: A systematic review

BACKGROUND

Throwing Performance (TP) is important in throwing sports. Several tests have been designed to assess TP, and the reliability of these tests was examined in various studies. The aim of this systematic review was to critically appraise and synthesize the studies that examined the reliability of TP tests.

METHODS

A systematic search was conducted on PubMed, Scopus, CINAHL and SPORTDiscus to identify studies related to TP and reliability. The quality of the included studies was examined through the Quality Appraisal of Reliability Studies (QAREL) tool. Reliability was assessed using the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC), while responsiveness was assessed using the minimal detectable change (MDC). Sensitivity analysis was conducted to identify whether low-quality studies may have biased the recommendations of this review.

RESULTS

Seventeen studies were found eligible. The results showed a moderate level of evidence to suggest that TP tests have good reliability (ICC≥0.76). This recommendation was also applied separately when TP tests were used to measure throwing velocity, distance covered, endurance and throwing accuracy. Also, summated MDC scores were reported to assist coaches in decision-making when using TP tests to detect real performance changes. However, sensitivity analysis showed that there is a significant number of low-quality studies.

CONCLUSIONS

This review revealed that the tests used for throwing performance assessment are reliable; however, due to a significant number of low-quality studies, these results should be used cautiously. Important recommendations of this review may be used in future studies to design high-quality studies.

Effect of difficulty of task on throwing performance and coping strategies in team handball

In this study the effect of level of opposition on throwing performance and coping strategies in the jump throw was examined in elite, amateur, and adolescent players in team handball. Twenty four participants consisting of 13 female elite junior handball players (age: 15.5 ± 0.7 years; height: 1.72 ± 0.07 m; body mass: 64.2 ± 7.0 kg; years of handball experience: 8.4 ± 1.76 years) and 11 senior recreational female handball players (age: 19.5 ± 1.04 years; height: 1.68 ± 0.08 m; body mass: 65.2 ± 9.3 kg; years of handball experience: 11 ± 2.61 years) performed ten jump throws under four conditions: (1) without opposition; (2) with a passive opponent; (3) with an opponent moving sideways; and (4) with a defender who was instructed to be unpredictable without physical contact with the thrower. Ball velocity and accuracy were measured for every throw together with answering a questionnaire consisting of 18 questions after each condition to investigate if coping strategies changed with increasing difficulty of task and if this was different for playing level. The main findings were that ball velocity and accuracy decreased when opposition was introduced, but with no differences when the opposition moved only sideways or unpredictably (forwards and/or sideways), similarly for both groups. Furthermore, the level had no influence on the coping strategies or a relationship with either of these coping strategies, but the avoidance coping strategy scored lower than the other two categories for both groups. It was concluded that level of opposition had a negative effect on throwing velocity and accuracy in elite junior and recreational level senior players which was probably caused by the change of given attention to one target (overcome opponent), which leaves less available for others (throwing velocity and accuracy). Furthermore, coping strategies did not change or have any correlation with throwing performance, indicating that these strategies seem to be influenced by trait and that most players mainly used problem- and emotional-focused coping strategies and less avoidance strategies when dealing with the level of opposition.

Acute Effects of High-Intensity Interval Running on Lower-Body and Upper-Body Explosive Strength and Throwing Velocity in Handball Players

ABSTRACT

Seipp, D, Feuerbacher, JF, Jacobs, MW, Dragutinovic, B, and Schumann, M. Acute effects of high-intensity interval running on lower-body and upper-body explosive strength and throwing velocity in handball players. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2022-The purpose of this study was to determine the acute effects of handball-specific high-intensity interval training (HIIT) on explosive strength and throwing velocity, after varying periods of recovery. Fourteen highly trained male handball players (age: 25.4 (26.2 ± 4.2) performed HIIT consisting of repeated 15-second shuttle runs at 90% of final running speed (VIFT) to exhaustion. Upper-body and lower-body explosive strength and throwing velocities were measured before and immediately after HIIT, as well as after 6 hours. These tests included 3 repetitions of both bench press and squat exercise at 60% of the 1 repetition maximum (1RM) as well as 3 repetitions of the set shot without run up and jump shot, respectively. Explosive squat performance was significantly reduced at post (-5.48%, p = 0.026) but not at 6 h (-0.24%, p = 1.000). Explosive bench press performance remained statistically unaltered at post (0.32%, p = 1.000) and at 6 hour (1.96%, p = 1.000). This was also observed in the subsequent throws both immediately after (-0.60%, p = 1.000) (-0.31%, p = 1.000) and at 6 h (-1.58%, p = 1.000) (1.51%, p = 0.647). Our data show a reduction in explosive strength of the lower but not upper extremities when preceded by running HIIT. Since throwing velocity was not affected by intense lower-body exercise, combining lower-body HIIT and throwing practice may be of no concern in highly trained handball players.

Effects of bouncing the barbell in bench press on throwing velocity and strength among handball players

Bench press is a popular training-exercise in throw related sports such as javelin, baseball and handball. Athletes in these sports often use bouncing (i.e., letting the barbell collide with the chest) to create an increased momentum to accelerate the barbell upwards before completing the movement by throwing the barbell. Importantly, the effects of the bouncing technique in bench press have not been examined. Therefore, the aim of this study was to compare the effects of bench press throw with (BPTbounce) or without bounce (BPT) on throwing velocity (penalty and 3-step), 1-repetition maximum (1-RM) and average power output (20-60kg) in bench press among handball players. Sixteen male amateur handball players (7.1±1.9 years of handball experience) were randomly allocated to an eight-week supplementary power training program (2 x week-1) with either the BPT or BPTbounce. Except for the bounce technique, the training programs were identical and consisted of 3 sets with 3-5 repetitions at 40-60% of 1-RM with maximal effort in free-weight barbell bench press throw. The results revealed no significant differences between the groups in any of the tests (p = 0.109-0.957). However, both groups improved penalty throw (BPT; 4.6%, p<0.001, ES = 0.57; BPTbounce; 5.1%, p = 0.008, ES = 0.91) and 1-RM (BPT; 9.7%, p<0.001, ES = 0.49; BPTbounce; 8.7%, p = 0.018, ES = 0.60), but only the BPT improved the 3-step throw (BPT; 2.9%, p = 0.060, ES = 0.38; BPTbounce; 2.3%, p = 0.216, ES = 0.40). The BPT improved power output only at 20kg and 30kg loads (9.1% and 12.7%; p = 0.018-0.048, ES = 0.43-0.51) whereas BPTbounce demonstrated no significant differences across the loads (p = 0.252-0.806). In conclusion, the bounce technique demonstrated similar effects on throwing velocity, muscle strength and muscle power output as conventional bench press throw without the bounce technique.

Exploring the Effect of Long Naps on Handball Performance and Heart Rate Variability

This study explored the effect of long naps on handball-related performance and assessed the role of the cardiac autonomic nervous system in this process. Eleven male collegiate handball players performed a repeated sequential trial consisting of a 20-m consecutive turnaround run, 10-m run with a load, and shooting the ball into a target. Participants were allocated randomly and sequentially to have a short (20 minutes) nap, long (60 minutes) nap, or no nap. The Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index was used to assess regular sleep quality. Subjective sleepiness before and after napping was measured using the Karolinska Sleepiness Scale. Heart rate variability was recorded to assess cardiac autonomic nervous function during napping. The Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index score was correlated with shot accuracy only after long naps (ρ=0.636, r=0.048). A negative correlation was observed between the root mean square of successive differences and average load run time (ρ=−0.929, p<0.001). Long napping was associated with a significant benefit on performance in athletes with poor sleep quality, implying a role of the autonomic nervous system in this regard. Our findings indicate the effect of sleep quality on the endurance and resistance of handball players.

The Influence of Fatigue on Throwing and YBT-UQ Performance in Male Adolescent Handball Players

Purpose: The goal of the present study was to assess the effects of fatigue on throwing and Upper Quarter Y Balance Test (YBT-UQ) performance in male adolescent handball players. We hypothesized that throwing and YBT-UQ performance will be decreased in response to an upper-body fatigue-protocol.

Method: All male participants (N = 24, age: 14.8 ± 0.7 yrs) were handball players of a regional youth selection team. A radar gun was used for the assessment of throwing velocity. The YBT-UQ was executed assessing medial, inferolateral and superolateral reach directions normalized to the upper limb length together with a composite score. Immediately following a fatigue protocol of different sets of push-ups until failure (i.e., not being able to perform 60% of the initial maximal amount of push-ups), throwing and YBT-UQ performance were assessed again.

Results: Fatigue resulted in a significant decrease in throwing velocity (−3%, p = 0.022, d = 0.32). Concerning YBT-UQ, the fatigue protocol produced significant decreases for the superolateral reach direction (throwing arm reach: −5%, p = 0.017, d = 0.39; non-throwing arm reach: −10%, p < 0.001, d = 0.87) and the composite score (throwing arm reach: −2%, p = 0.026, d = 0.31; non-throwing arm reach: −4%, p = 0.001, d = 0.52) but not for the medial and the inferolateral reach directions.

Conclusions: Fatigue was found to be an impairing factor for throwing performance and shoulder mobility and stability. Therefore, a lower level of fatigue and/or a higher tolerance of fatigue is desirable. Strength-endurance and mobility exercises especially for the shoulder girdle may be a valuable addition for the training routine of youth handball players.

Relationship between Anthropometric Parameters and Throwing Speed in Amateur Male Handball Players at Different Ages

The objectives of this study were: (i) to analyse anthropometric parameters and throwing speed from seven meters in amateur male handball players of different ages; (ii) to know the relationship between anthropometric parameters and throwing. One hundred seventy-six male handball players (16.5 ± 5.1 years old) participated in the study, classified according to their age: senior (n = 35), U18 (n = 30), U16 (n = 37), U14 (n = 50) and U12 (n = 24). All participants were evaluated by anthropometric measurements (height, weight, body mass index, arm span, hand width) and throwing speed from 7 m standing. A one-way analysis of variance with a Bonferroni post hoc test was used to establish the differences between teams. Pearson’s simple correlation coefficients were calculated between analyse anthropometric parameters and throwing speed. Multiple linear regression was used to predict the throwing speed. Only BMI was related with throwing speed in all age groups (0.506 > r < 0.813, p < 0.05). Throwing speed was predicted (24–72%) with only one or two variables in each model. The selected variables were: BMI, arm span in U16 model and height U14 model, and the BMI, arm span and height are proved to be good predictors of TS in male handball players.

Relationship between Upper Quarter Y Balance Test performance and throwing proficiency in adolescent Olympic handball players

Background

Olympic handball is a sport mainly focused on executing throwing and passing techniques with the throwing arm. Functional specialization due to the unilateral characteristic and dominance of the throwing arm may lead to adapted control of shoulder stability and mobility. Thus, we examined side differences between the throwing and the non-throwing arm. Additionally, correlations between the Upper Quarter Y Balance Test (YBT-UQ) and handball-specific performance measures were investigated.

Methods

All participants (F = 13 yrs., n = 14, training experience [te] 5.9 ± 1.3 yrs.; M = 14 yrs., n = 24, te 6.5 ± 2.5 yrs.; M = 15 yrs., n = 18, te 9.3 ± 2.2 yrs) were Olympic handball players of a regional youth selection team. YBT-UQ was executed assessing performance in medial, inferolateral and superolateral reach direction normalized to the upper limb length together with a composite score of the mean of all reach directions. A radar gun and a target net were used for the assessment of throwing velocity and throwing accuracy. The paired t-test was used to detect side differences in YBT-UQ performance. Pearson’s correlation analysis was calculated for associations between YBT-UQ and throwing velocity/accuracy.

Results

Significant differences between the throwing and non-throwing arm were only detected for the superolateral reach direction in the 14-year-old males. Small correlations between YBT-UQ performance and throwing velocity/accuracy (13-year-old females: − 0.01 ≤ r ≤ − 0.37 / 0.01 ≤ r ≤ 0.31; 14-year-old males: 0.10 ≤ r ≤ 0.45 / -0.01 ≤ r ≤ .-0.51; 15-year-old males: 0.06 ≤ r ≤ 0.34 / 0.01 ≤ r ≤ − 0.45) were observed, irrespective of age and sex category.

Conclusions

There was only a minimal difference in performance of the YBT-UQ between the throwing and non-throwing arm and only weak if any relationships between throwing performance and stability/mobility of the upper extremities in adolescent Olympic handball players existed. Further research is needed to investigate whether the YBT-UQ is a useful tool to detect training-related improvements in measures of shoulder stability/mobility and functional performance.

Effects of foot orthoses on dynamic balance and basketball free-throw accuracy before and after physical fatigue

While it is not uncommon for athletes to use foot orthoses to relieve pain and improve sports performance, little has been known about their effects on basketball performance. Free-throw basketball shooting is very important. However, fatigue deteriorates postural balance which might decrease free-throw shooting performance. This study investigated the effects of foot orthoses on dynamic balance and accuracy performance during free-throw shooting before and after physical fatigue was induced. Thirteen male recreational basketball players were tested with two foot orthoses (medial-arch support versus flat control) and fatigue conditions (before and after fatigue), when they performed standard free-throw shooting on a force platform. Results revealed that fatigue significantly increased coefficient of variance of medial-lateral center of pressure (CoP) excursion when participants worn flat control orthoses (p < 0.05). Meanwhile, foot orthoses improved dynamic balance during shooting as they significantly reduced total resultant and anterior-posterior sway excursions as well as resultant and anterior-posterior CoP velocities, and base of support area. Although this study found that fatigue and orthoses did not significantly affect the scores gained by free-throw shooting, the significant improvements in dynamic balance during shooting with the use of foot orthoses could have considerable impact on motor control during basketball shooting.

Functional Mobility and Dynamic Postural Control Predict Overhead Handball Throwing Performance in Elite Female Team Handball Players

The relationship between dynamic postural control, functional mobility and team handball throwing performance, velocity and accuracy, is largely unknown. The hand reach star excursion balance test (HSEBT) is a full kinetic chain assessment tool of these factors. Specifically, L135 and R135 (extension) reaches elicit joint movement combinations similar to the cocking and acceleration phase, while the L45 and R45 (flexion) reaches elicit joint movement combinations similar to the follow-through. The purpose of this study was to determine if specific HSEBT reach measures correlate with team handball throwing performance. Eleven elite female team handball players (21.7 ± 1.8 years; 71.3 ± 9.6 kg; 1.75 ± 0.07 m) executed selected HSEBT reaches before performing five valid step-up overhead throws (1x1m target) from which throwing velocity (motion capture) and accuracy (mean radial error) were quantified. Significant relationships between HSEBT measures and mean radial error, but not throwing velocity were established. Specifically, extension composite scores (L135+R135) for the dominant (150.7 ± 17.4cm) and non-dominant foot (148.1 ± 17.5 cm) were correlated with mean radial error (p < 0.05). Also, specific reaches on the dominant (L135: 87.4 ± 5.6 cm; R135: 63.4 ± 11.8 cm) and non-dominant (R135: 87.0 ± 6.1 cm) foot were correlated with throwing error (p < 0.05). The lack of significant findings to throwing velocity might be due to a ceiling effect of both L135 and R135 and of throwing velocity. We conclude that while there may be other reasons for handball players to train and test functional mobility and dynamic postural control as measured in the HSEBT, no beneficial effect on throwing performance should be expected in an elite group of handball players.

Variations of perceived load and well-being between normal and congested weeks in elite case study handball team

The aim of this study was two-fold: (i) to analyze the variations in internal load and well-being in professional handball players between normal and congested weeks and (ii) to analyze the variations between training days within weeks. Twenty male players (26.5 ± 4.9 yo) were monitored during a full season. MD-1 (match day -1) revealed larger decreases in muscle soreness (-17.3%, [-26.6;-6.9]) and fatigue (-16.6%, [-24.8;-7.4]) in congested weeks. Regarding MD-2, larger decreases in DOMS (-19.9%, [-30.5;-7.6]), fatigue (-19.7%, [-30.0;-7.9] and the Hooper index (-16.7%, [-25.6;-6.7]) were found in congested weeks. The results of this study reveal that larger variations between normal and congested weeks occurred in MD-2 and MD-3, with greater values of load and lower levels of well-being occurring in normal weeks. Within-weeks changes revealed greater loads occurring on MD-3 and MD-2 in comparison to MD-1; in the opposite way, greater values of muscle soreness and fatigue occurred on MD-1.

Unaccounted Workload Factor: Game-Day Pitch Counts in High School Baseball Pitchers-An Observational Study

Background:

Throwing injuries are common in high school baseball. Known risk factors include excessive pitch counts, year-round pitching, and pitching with arm pain and fatigue. Despite the evidence, the prevalence of pitching injuries among high school players has not decreased. One possibility to explain this pattern is that players accumulate unaccounted pitch volume during warm-up and bullpen activity, but this has not yet been examined.

Hypotheses:

Our primary hypothesis was that approximately 30% to 40% of pitches thrown off a mound by high school pitchers during a game-day outing are unaccounted for in current data but will be revealed when bullpen sessions and warm-up pitches are included. Our secondary hypothesis was that there is wide variability among players in the number of bullpen pitches thrown per outing.

Study Design:

Cross-sectional study; Level of evidence, 3.

Methods:

Researchers counted all pitches thrown off a mound during varsity high school baseball games played by 34 high schools in North Central Florida during the 2017 season.

Results:

We recorded 13,769 total pitches during 115 varsity high school baseball starting pitcher outings. The mean ± SD pitch numbers per game were calculated for bullpen activity (27.2 ± 9.4), warm-up (23.6 ±8.0), live games (68.9 ±19.7), and total pitches per game (119.7 ± 27.8). Thus, 42.4% of the pitches performed were not accounted for in the pitch count monitoring of these players. The number of bullpen pitches thrown varied widely among players, with 25% of participants in our data set throwing fewer than 22 pitches and 25% throwing more than 33 pitches per outing.

Conclusion:

In high school baseball players, pitch count monitoring does not account for the substantial volume of pitching that occurs during warm-up and bullpen activity during the playing season. These extra pitches should be closely monitored to help mitigate the risk of overuse injury.