Evidence that Ginkgo Biloba could use in the influenza and coronavirus COVID-19 infections

Plant secondary metabolites involved in the stress tolerance of long-lived trees

Ancient trees are natural wonders because of their longevity, having lived for hundreds or thousands of years, and their ability to withstand changing environments and a variety of stresses. These long-lived trees have sophisticated defense mechanisms, such as the production of specialized plant metabolites (SPMs). In this review, we provide an overview of the major biotic and abiotic stresses that long-lived trees often face, as well as an analysis of renowned ancient tree species and their unique protective SPMs against environmental stressors. We also discuss the synthesis and accumulation of defensive SPMs induced by environmental factors and endophytes in these trees. Furthermore, we conducted a comparative genomic analysis of 17 long-lived tree species and discovered significant expansions of SPM biosynthesis gene families in these species. Our comprehensive review reveals the crucial role of SPMs in high resistance in long-lived trees, providing a novel natural resource for plant defense, crop improvement and even the pharmaceutical industry.

Modeling the Antiviral Activity of Ginkgo biloba Polyphenols against Variola: In Silico Exploration of Inhibitory Candidates for VarTMPK and HssTMPK Enzymes

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study is to use modeling methods to estimate the antiviral activity of natural molecules extracted from Ginkgo biloba for the treatment of variola which is a zoonotic disease posing a growing threat to human survival. The recent spread of variola in nonendemic countries and the possibility of its use as a bioterrorism weapon have made it a global threat once again. Therefore, the search for new antiviral therapies with reduced side effects is necessary.

METHODS

In this study, we examined the interactions between polyphenolic compounds from Ginkgo biloba, a plant known for its antiviral activity, and two enzymes involved in variola treatment, VarTMPK and HssTMPK, using molecular docking.

RESULTS

The obtained docking scores showed that among the 152 selected polyphenolic compounds; many ligands had high inhibitory potential according to the energy affinity. By considering Lipinski's rules, we found that Liquiritin and Olivil molecules are the best candidates to be developed into drugs that inhibit VarTMPK because of their high obtained scores compared to reference ligands, and zero violations of Lipinski's rules. We also found that ginkgolic acids have good affinities with HssTMPK and acceptable physicochemical properties to be developed into drugs administered orally.

CONCLUSION

Based on the obtained scores and Lipinski's rules, Liquiritin, Olivil, and ginkgolic acids molecules showed interesting results for both studied enzymes, indicating the existence of promising and moderate activity of these polyphenols for the treatment of variola and for possible multi-targeting. Liquiritin has been shown to exhibit anti-inflammatory effects on various inflammation- related diseases such as skin injury, hepatic inflammatory injury, and rheumatoid arthritis. Olivil has been shown to have antioxidant activity. Olivil derivatives have also been studied for their potential use as anticancer agents. Ginkgolic acids have been shown to have antimicrobial and antifungal properties. However, ginkgolic acids are also known to cause allergic reactions in some people. Therefore, future studies should consider these results and explore the potential of these compounds as antiviral agents. Further experimental studies in-vitro and in-vivo are required to validate and scale up these findings.

Plant-Derived Epi-Nutraceuticals as Potential Broad-Spectrum Anti-Viral Agents

Although the COVID-19 pandemic appears to be diminishing, the emergence of SARS-CoV-2 variants represents a threat to humans due to their inherent transmissibility, immunological evasion, virulence, and invulnerability to existing therapies. The COVID-19 pandemic affected more than 500 million people and caused over 6 million deaths. Vaccines are essential, but in circumstances in which vaccination is not accessible or in individuals with compromised immune systems, drugs can provide additional protection. Targeting host signaling pathways is recommended due to their genomic stability and resistance barriers. Moreover, targeting host factors allows us to develop compounds that are effective against different viral variants as well as against newly emerging virus strains. In recent years, the globe has experienced climate change, which may contribute to the emergence and spread of infectious diseases through a variety of factors. Warmer temperatures and changing precipitation patterns can increase the geographic range of disease-carrying vectors, increasing the risk of diseases spreading to new areas. Climate change may also affect vector behavior, leading to a longer breeding season and more breeding sites for disease vectors. Climate change may also disrupt ecosystems, bringing humans closer to wildlife that transmits zoonotic diseases. All the above factors may accelerate the emergence of new viral epidemics. Plant-derived products, which have been used in traditional medicine for treating pathological conditions, offer structurally novel therapeutic compounds, including those with anti-viral activity. In addition, plant-derived bioactive substances might serve as the ideal basis for developing sustainable/efficient/cost-effective anti-viral alternatives. Interest in herbal antiviral products has increased. More than 50% of approved drugs originate from herbal sources. Plant-derived compounds offer diverse structures and bioactive molecules that are candidates for new drug development. Combining these therapies with conventional drugs could improve patient outcomes. Epigenetics modifications in the genome can affect gene expression without altering DNA sequences. Host cells can use epigenetic gene regulation as a mechanism to silence incoming viral DNA molecules, while viruses recruit cellular epitranscriptomic (covalent modifications of RNAs) modifiers to increase the translational efficiency and transcript stability of viral transcripts to enhance viral gene expression and replication. Moreover, viruses manipulate host cells' epigenetic machinery to ensure productive viral infections. Environmental factors, such as natural products, may influence epigenetic modifications. In this review, we explore the potential of plant-derived substances as epigenetic modifiers for broad-spectrum anti-viral activity, reviewing their modulation processes and anti-viral effects on DNA and RNA viruses, as well as addressing future research objectives in this rapidly emerging field.

A bibliometric and thematic analysis of the trends in the research on ginkgo biloba extract from 1985 to 2022

Background

Ginkgo biloba extract (GBE), a complementary and alternative medicine, has been widely used for disorders such as brain infarction, dementia, and coronary heart disease, in recent decades. Given its widespread clinical use, GBE has always been a vital research topic. However, there are no bibliometric analyses on this topic; furthermore, published reviews of GBE focus only on a specific research field or lack scientific and systematic evaluation. This study combined bibliometrics with thematic reviews by visual analysis to identify the current status of GBE research and to better identify research hotspots and trends in the past 40 years to understand future developments in basic and clinical research.

Methods

Articles and reviews on GBE were retrieved by topic from the Web of Science Core Collection from inception to 2022.12.01. Countries, institutions, authors, journals, references, and keywords in the field were visually analyzed using CiteSpace, Scimago Graphica, and VOSviewer software; then, these visualization results for references and keywords were clarified in detail by thematic reviews in subdivisions of the fields.

Results

In total, 2015 publications were included. The GBE-related literature has high volumes of publications and citations. The majority of literature is from China, and the USA cooperates most closely with other countries. In GBE research, Christen Yves is the most cited author, Phytotherapy Research is the most prolific journal, and the Journal of Ethnopharmacology is the most co-cited journal. Through a comprehensive analysis of keywords, references, and reviews, the quality of the meta-analysis of randomized controlled clinical trials of GBE in treating dementia was evaluated by the Risk of Bias in Systematic Reviews scale (ROBIS). Current research on GBE focuses on its pharmacological mechanisms, and neuroprotective application in diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, and glaucoma. Randomized controlled trials are the current research hotspot.

Conclusion

Research on GBE is flourishing; using bibliometric and thematic analysis, we identified its hotspots and trends. The pharmacological mechanisms and clinical applications of GBE are the focus of present and likely future research.

Exploring the Protective Effect of Food Drugs against Viral Diseases: Interaction of Functional Food Ingredients and SARS-CoV-2, Influenza Virus, and HSV

A complex network of processes inside the human immune system provides resistance against a wide range of pathologies. These defenses form an innate and adaptive immunity, in which certain immune components work together to counteract infections. In addition to inherited variables, the susceptibility to diseases may be influenced by factors such as lifestyle choices and aging, as well as environmental determinants. It has been shown that certain dietary chemical components regulate signal transduction and cell morphologies which, in turn, have consequences on pathophysiology. The consumption of some functional foods may increase immune cell activity, defending us against a number of diseases, including those caused by viruses. Here, we investigate a range of functional foods, often marketed as immune system boosters, in an attempt to find indications of their potential protective role against diseases caused by viruses, such as the influenza viruses (A and B), herpes simplex virus (HSV), and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), in some cases mediated by gut microbiota. We also discuss the molecular mechanisms that govern the protective effects of some functional foods and their molecular constituents. The main message of this review is that discovering foods that are able to strengthen the immune system can be a winning weapon against viral diseases. In addition, understanding how the dietary components function can aid in the development of novel strategies for maintaining human bodily health and keeping our immune systems strong.

Ginkgo biloba leaf extract EGb 761® as a paragon of the product by process concept

It is an often-neglected fact that extracts derived from the very same plant can differ significantly in their phytochemical composition, and thus also in their pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties which are the basis for their clinical efficacy and safety. The Ginkgo biloba L. [Ginkgoaceae] special extract EGb 761^® is one of the best-studied plant extracts in the world. In the present review, using that extract as a paradigm, we describe insights how climate, the harvest region, processing of the plant material, the drying process, the extraction solvents, and the details of the subsequent process steps substantially impact the quality and uniformity of the final extract. We highlight the importance of regulating active constituent levels and consistent reduction of undesired substances in herbal extracts. This is accomplished by a controlled production process and corresponding analytical specifications. In conclusion, since extracts derived from the same plant can have very different phytochemical compositions, results from pharmacological, toxicological and clinical studies gained with one specific extract cannot be extrapolated to other extracts that were generated using different production processes. We propose that the heterogenous nature of extracts should be meticulously considered when evaluating the efficacy and safety of plant-derived remedies.

Ginkgo biloba in the management of the COVID-19 severity

The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection is linked with inflammatory disorders and the development of oxidative stress in extreme cases. Therefore, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant drugs may alleviate these complications. Ginkgo biloba L. folium extract (EGb) is a herbal medicine containing various active constituents. This review aims to provide a critical discussion on the potential role of EGb in the management of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). The antiviral effect of EGb is mediated by different mechanisms, including blocking SARS-CoV-2 3-chymotrypsin-like protease that provides trans-variant effectiveness. Moreover, EGb impedes the development of pulmonary inflammatory disorders through the diminution of neutrophil elastase activity, the release of proinflammatory cytokines, platelet aggregation, and thrombosis. Thus, EGb can attenuate the acute lung injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome in COVID-19. In conclusion, EGb offers the potential of being used as adjuvant antiviral and symptomatic therapy. Nanosystems enabling targeted delivery, personalization, and booster of effects provide the opportunity for the use of EGb in modern phytotherapy.

Uncovering the pharmacology of Ginkgo biloba folium in the cell-type-specific targets of Parkinson's disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disease with a fast-growing prevalence. Developing disease-modifying therapies for PD remains an enormous challenge. Current drug treatment will lose efficacy and bring about severe side effects as the disease progresses. Extracts from Ginkgo biloba folium (GBE) have been shown neuroprotective in PD models. However, the complex GBE extracts intertwingled with complicated PD targets hinder further drug development. In this study, we have pioneered using single-nuclei RNA sequencing data in network pharmacology analysis. Furthermore, high-throughput screening for potent drug-target interaction (DTI) was conducted with a deep learning algorithm, DeepPurpose. The strongest DTIs between ginkgolides and MAPK14 were further validated by molecular docking. This work should help advance the network pharmacology analysis procedure to tackle the limitation of conventional research. Meanwhile, these results should contribute to a better understanding of the complicated mechanisms of GBE in treating PD and lay the theoretical ground for future drug development in PD.

Medicinal Herbs in the Relief of Neurological, Cardiovascular, and Respiratory Symptoms after COVID-19 Infection A Literature Review

COVID-19 infection causes complications, even in people who have had a mild course of the disease. The most dangerous seem to be neurological ailments: anxiety, depression, mixed anxiety–depressive (MAD) syndromes, and irreversible dementia. These conditions can negatively affect the respiratory system, circulatory system, and heart functioning. We believe that phytotherapy can be helpful in all of these conditions. Clinical trials confirm this possibility. The work presents plant materials (Valeriana officinalis, Melissa officinalis, Passiflora incarnata, Piper methysticum, Humulus lupulus, Ballota nigra, Hypericum perforatum, Rhodiola rosea, Lavandula officinalis, Paullinia cupana, Ginkgo biloba, Murraya koenigii, Crataegus monogyna and oxyacantha, Hedera helix, Polygala senega, Pelargonium sidoides, Lichen islandicus, Plantago lanceolata) and their dominant compounds (valeranon, valtrate, apigenin, citronellal, isovitexin, isoorientin, methysticin, humulone, farnesene, acteoside, hypericin, hyperforin, biapigenin, rosavidin, salidroside, linalool acetate, linalool, caffeine, ginkgolide, bilobalide, mihanimbine, epicatechin, hederacoside C,α-hederine, presegenin, umckalin, 6,7,8-trixydroxybenzopyranone disulfate, fumaroprotocetric acid, protolichesteric acid, aucubin, acteoside) responsible for their activity. It also shows the possibility of reducing post-COVID-19 neurological, respiratory, and cardiovascular complications, which can affect the functioning of the nervous system.

Flavonoids for Treating Viral Acute Respiratory Tract Infections: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of 30 Randomized Controlled Trials

BACKGROUND

This meta-analysis aimed to investigate the efficacy and safety of flavonoids in treating viral acute respiratory tract infections (ARTIs).

METHODS

Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) were entered into meta-analyses performed separately for each indication. Efficacy analyses were based on changes in disease-specific symptom scores. Safety was analyzed based on the pooled data from all eligible trials, by comparing the incidence of adverse events between flavonoids and the control.

RESULTS

In this study, thirty RCTs (n = 5,166) were included. In common cold, results showed that the flavonoids group decreased total cold intensity score (CIS), the sum of sum of symptom intensity differences (SSID) of CIS, and duration of inability to work vs. the control group. In influenza, the flavonoids group improved the visual analog scores for symptoms. In COVID-19, the flavonoids group decreased the time taken for alleviation of symptoms, time taken for SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR clearance, the RT-PCR positive subjects at day 7, time to achievement of the normal status of symptoms, patients needed oxygen, patients hospitalized and requiring mechanical ventilation, patients in ICU, days of hospitalization, and mortality vs. the control group. In acute non-streptococcal tonsillopharyngitis, the flavonoids group decreased the tonsillitis severity score (TSS) on day 7. In acute rhinosinusitis, the flavonoids group decreased the sinusitis severity score (SSS) on day 7, days off work, and duration of illness. In acute bronchitis, the flavonoids group decreased the bronchitis severity score (BSS) on day 7, days off work, and duration of illness. In bronchial pneumonia, the flavonoids group decreased the time to symptoms disappearance, the level of interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-8 (IL-8), and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α). In upper respiratory tract infections, the flavonoids group decreased total CIS on day 7 and increased the improvement rate of symptoms. Furthermore, the results of the incidence of adverse reactions did not differ between the flavonoids and the control group.

CONCLUSION

Results from this systematic review and meta-analysis suggested that flavonoids were efficacious and safe in treating viral ARTIs including the common cold, influenza, COVID-19, acute non-streptococcal tonsillopharyngitis, acute rhinosinusitis, acute bronchitis, bronchial pneumonia, and upper respiratory tract infections. However, uncertainty remains because there were few RCTs per type of ARTI and many of the RCTs were small and of low quality with a substantial risk of bias. Given the limitations, we suggest that the conclusions need to be confirmed on a larger scale with more detailed instructions in future studies.Systematic Review Registration: inplasy.com/inplasy-2021-8-0107/, identifier: INPLASY20218010.

Nutraceuticals in HIV and COVID-19-Related Neurological Complications: Opportunity to Use Extracellular Vesicles as Drug Delivery Modality

Simple Summary

In this review, we discuss the potential use of extracellular vesicles (EVs) to deliver dietary supplements to the brain to reduce brain complications associated with HIV, COVID-19, and other brain disorders. Brain-related complications affect people with HIV and COVID-19 alike. Moreover, since HIV patients are at a higher risk of contracting COVID-19, their neurological problems can be exacerbated by COVID-19. The use of dietary supplements together with available treatment options has been shown to reduce the severity of infections. However, these treatments are not chemically compatible with the body’s blood–brain barrier defense mechanism. Therefore, a viable delivery method is needed to deliver drugs and nutraceuticals to the brain in HIV and COVID-19 comorbid patients.

Abstract

People living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA) are at an increased risk of severe and critical COVID-19 infection. There is a steady increase in neurological complications associated with COVID-19 infection, exacerbating HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND) in PLWHA. Nutraceuticals, such as phytochemicals from medicinal plants and dietary supplements, have been used as adjunct therapies for many disease conditions, including viral infections. Appropriate use of these adjunct therapies with antiviral proprieties may be beneficial in treating and/or prophylaxis of neurological complications associated with these co-infections. However, most of these nutraceuticals have poor bioavailability and cannot cross the blood–brain barrier (BBB). To overcome this challenge, extracellular vesicles (EVs), biological nanovesicles, can be used. Due to their intrinsic features of biocompatibility, stability, and their ability to cross BBB, as well as inherent homing capabilities, EVs hold immense promise for therapeutic drug delivery to the brain. Therefore, in this review, we summarize the potential role of different nutraceuticals in reducing HIV- and COVID-19-associated neurological complications and the use of EVs as nutraceutical/drug delivery vehicles to treat HIV, COVID-19, and other brain disorders.

Could SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein Be Responsible for Long-COVID Syndrome?

SARS-CoV-2 infects cells via its spike protein binding to its surface receptor on target cells and results in acute symptoms involving especially the lungs known as COVID-19. However, increasing evidence indicates that many patients develop a chronic condition characterized by fatigue and neuropsychiatric symptoms, termed long-COVID. Most of the vaccines produced so far for COVID-19 direct mammalian cells via either mRNA or an adenovirus vector to express the spike protein, or administer recombinant spike protein, which is recognized by the immune system leading to the production of neutralizing antibodies. Recent publications provide new findings that may help decipher the pathogenesis of long-COVID. One paper reported perivascular inflammation in brains of deceased patients with COVID-19, while others showed that the spike protein could damage the endothelium in an animal model, that it could disrupt an in vitro model of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), and that it can cross the BBB resulting in perivascular inflammation. Moreover, the spike protein appears to share antigenic epitopes with human molecular chaperons resulting in autoimmunity and can activate toll-like receptors (TLRs), leading to release of inflammatory cytokines. Moreover, some antibodies produced against the spike protein may not be neutralizing, but may change its conformation rendering it more likely to bind to its receptor. As a result, one wonders whether the spike protein entering the brain or being expressed by brain cells could activate microglia, alone or together with inflammatory cytokines, since protective antibodies could not cross the BBB, leading to neuro-inflammation and contributing to long-COVID. Hence, there is urgent need to better understand the neurotoxic effects of the spike protein and to consider possible interventions to mitigate spike protein-related detrimental effects to the brain, possibly via use of small natural molecules, especially the flavonoids luteolin and quercetin.