1
|
Nabi-Afjadi M, Ostadhadi S, Liaghat M, Pasupulla AP, Masoumi S, Aziziyan F, Zalpoor H, Abkhooie L, Tarhriz V. Revolutionizing type 1 diabetes management: Exploring oral insulin and adjunctive treatments. Biomed Pharmacother 2024; 176:116808. [PMID: 38805967 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2024.116808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2024] [Revised: 05/20/2024] [Accepted: 05/20/2024] [Indexed: 05/30/2024] Open
Abstract
Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is a chronic autoimmune condition that affects millions of people worldwide. Insulin pumps or injections are the standard treatment options for this condition. This article provides a comprehensive overview of the several type 1 diabetes treatment options, focusing on oral insulin. The article is divided into parts that include immune-focused treatments, antigen vaccination, cell-directed interventions, cytokine-directed interventions, and non-immunomodulatory adjuvant therapy. Under the section on non-immunomodulatory adjunctive treatment, the benefits and drawbacks of medications such as metformin, amylin, sodium-glucose cotransporter inhibitors, glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1 Ras), and verapamil are discussed. The article also discusses the advantages of oral insulin, including increased patient compliance and more dependable and regular blood sugar control. However, several variables, including the enzymatic and physical barriers of the digestive system, impair the administration of insulin via the mouth. Researchers have looked at a few ways to get over these challenges, such as changing the structure of the insulin molecule, improving absorption with the use of absorption enhancers or nanoparticles, and taking oral insulin together with other medications. Even with great advancements in the use of these treatment strategies, T1D still needs improvement in the therapeutic difficulties. Future studies in these areas should focus on creating tailored immunological treatments, looking into combination medications, and refining oral insulin formulations in an attempt to better control Type 1 Diabetes. The ultimate objective is to create accurate, customized strategies that will enhance glycemic management and the quality of life for individuals with the condition.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mohsen Nabi-Afjadi
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Samane Ostadhadi
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Faculty of Biological Science and Technology, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Mahsa Liaghat
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Islamic Azad University, Kazerun Branch, Kazerun, Iran; Network of Immunity in Infection, Malignancy & Autoimmunity (NIIMA), Universal Scientific Education & Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran
| | - Ajay Prakash Pasupulla
- Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology, School of Medicine, Colllege of health Sciences, Wachemo University, Hosanna, Ethiopia
| | - Sajjad Masoumi
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, National institute of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Tehran, Iran
| | - Fatemeh Aziziyan
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran; Network of Immunity in Infection, Malignancy & Autoimmunity (NIIMA), Universal Scientific Education & Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran
| | - Hamidreza Zalpoor
- Network of Immunity in Infection, Malignancy & Autoimmunity (NIIMA), Universal Scientific Education & Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran; Shiraz Neuroscience Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Leila Abkhooie
- Razi Herbal Medicines Research Center, Lorestan University of Medical Sciences, Khorramabad, Iran; Department of Medical Biotechnology, School of Medicine, Lorestan University of Medical Sciences, Khorramabad, Iran
| | - Vahideh Tarhriz
- Cardiovascular Center of Excellence, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, LA, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Zhang Y, Zhang Y, Ding R, Zhang K, Guo H, Lin Y. Self-Assembled Nanocarrier Delivery Systems for Bioactive Compounds. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2024; 20:e2310838. [PMID: 38214694 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202310838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2023] [Revised: 12/25/2023] [Indexed: 01/13/2024]
Abstract
Although bioactive compounds (BCs) have many important functions, their applications are greatly limited due to their own defects. The development of nanocarriers (NCs) technology has gradually overcome the defects of BCs. NCs are equally important as BCs to some extent. Self-assembly (SA) methods to build NCs have many advantages than chemical methods, and SA has significant impact on the structure and function of NCs. However, the relationship among SA mechanism, structure, and function has not been given enough attention. Therefore, from the perspective of bottom-up building mechanism, the concept of SA-structure-function of NCs is emphasized to promote the development of SA-based NCs. First, the conditions and forces for occurring SA are introduced, and then the SA basis and molecular mechanism of protein, polysaccharide, and lipid are summarized. Then, varieties of the structures formed based on SA are introduced in detail. Finally, facing the defects of BCs and how to be well solved by NCs are also elaborated. This review attempts to describe the great significance of constructing artificial NCs to deliver BCs from the aspects of SA-structure-function, so as to promote the development of SA-based NCs and the wide application of BCs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yafei Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Functional Dairy, College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Yuning Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Functional Dairy, College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Rui Ding
- Key Laboratory of Precision Nutrition and Food Quality, Department of Nutrition and Health, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100089, China
| | - Kai Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety, Ministry of Education, College of Food Science and Engineering, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin, 300457, China
| | - Huiyuan Guo
- Key Laboratory of Functional Dairy, College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100083, China
- Key Laboratory of Precision Nutrition and Food Quality, Department of Nutrition and Health, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100089, China
| | - Yingying Lin
- Key Laboratory of Precision Nutrition and Food Quality, Department of Nutrition and Health, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100089, China
- Food Laboratory of Zhongyuan, Luohe, 462300, China
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Afzal O, Rizwanullah M, Altamimi AS, Alossaimi MA, Kamal M, Ahmad J. Harnessing natural polysaccharides-based nanoparticles for oral delivery of phytochemicals: Knocking down the barriers. J Drug Deliv Sci Technol 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jddst.2023.104368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/18/2023]
|
4
|
Abdella S, Abid F, Youssef SH, Kim S, Afinjuomo F, Malinga C, Song Y, Garg S. pH and its applications in targeted drug delivery. Drug Discov Today 2023; 28:103414. [PMID: 36273779 DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2022.103414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2021] [Revised: 08/09/2022] [Accepted: 10/17/2022] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Physiologic pH is vital for the normal functioning of tissues and varies in different parts of the body. The varying pH of the body has been exploited to design pH-sensitive smart oral, transdermal and vaginal drug delivery systems (DDS). The DDS demonstrated promising results in hard-to-treat diseases such as cancer and Helicobacter pylori infection. In some cases, a change in pH of tissues or body fluids has also been employed as a useful diagnostic biomarker. This paper aims to comprehensively review the development and applications of pH-sensitive DDS as well as recent advances in the field.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sadikalmahdi Abdella
- Centre for Pharmaceutical Innovation (CPI), University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia; Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacy, College of Health Sciences, Addis Ababa University, Zambia St, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Fatima Abid
- Centre for Pharmaceutical Innovation (CPI), University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia
| | - Souha H Youssef
- Centre for Pharmaceutical Innovation (CPI), University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia
| | - Sangseo Kim
- Centre for Pharmaceutical Innovation (CPI), University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia
| | - Franklin Afinjuomo
- Centre for Pharmaceutical Innovation (CPI), University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia
| | - Constance Malinga
- Centre for Pharmaceutical Innovation (CPI), University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia
| | - Yunmei Song
- Centre for Pharmaceutical Innovation (CPI), University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia
| | - Sanjay Garg
- Centre for Pharmaceutical Innovation (CPI), University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Rawat U, Choudhary A, Mittal P, Verma A. The hidden obstacles to intranasal insulin delivery: A narrative review. JOURNAL OF DIABETOLOGY 2023. [DOI: 10.4103/jod.jod_108_22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/20/2023] Open
|
6
|
Natural Polysaccharide-Based Nanodrug Delivery Systems for Treatment of Diabetes. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14153217. [PMID: 35956731 PMCID: PMC9370904 DOI: 10.3390/polym14153217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2022] [Revised: 07/28/2022] [Accepted: 08/03/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
In recent years, natural polysaccharides have been considered as the ideal candidates for novel drug delivery systems because of their good biocompatibility, biodegradation, low immunogenicity, renewable source and easy modification. These natural polymers are widely used in the designing of nanocarriers, which possess wide applications in therapeutics, diagnostics, delivery and protection of bioactive compounds or drugs. A great deal of studies could be focused on developing polysaccharide nanoparticles and promoting their application in various fields, especially in biomedicine. In this review, a variety of polysaccharide-based nanocarriers were introduced, including nanoliposomes, nanoparticles, nanomicelles, nanoemulsions and nanohydrogels, focusing on the latest research progress of these nanocarriers in the treatment of diabetes and the possible strategies for further study of polysaccharide nanocarriers.
Collapse
|
7
|
Iyer G, Dyawanapelly S, Jain R, Dandekar P. An overview of oral insulin delivery strategies (OIDS). Int J Biol Macromol 2022; 208:565-585. [PMID: 35346680 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2022.03.144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2022] [Revised: 03/07/2022] [Accepted: 03/22/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Despite tremendous efforts, the world continues its fight against the common chronic disease-diabetes. Diabetes is caused by elevated glucose levels in the blood, which can lead to several complications like glaucoma, cataract, kidney failure, diabetic ketoacidosis, heart attack, and stroke. According to recent statistics, China, India, and the US rank at the top three positions with regards to the number of patients affected by diabetes. Ever since its discovery, insulin is one of the major therapeutic molecules that is used to control the disease in the diabetic population, worldwide. The most common route of insulin administration has been the subcutaneous route. However, the limitations associated with this route have motivated global efforts to explore alternative strategies to deliver insulin, including pulmonary, transdermal, nasal, rectal, buccal, and oral routes. Oral insulin delivery is the most convenient and patient-centered route. However, the oral route is also associated with numerous drawbacks that present significant challenges to the scientific fraternity. The human physiological system acts as a formidable barrier to insulin, limiting its bioavailability. The present review covers the major barriers against oral insulin delivery and explains formulation strategies that have been adopted to overcome these barriers. The review focuses on oral insulin delivery strategies (OIDS) for increasing the bioavailability of oral insulin, including nanoparticles, microparticles, nano-in-microparticles, hydrogels, tablets, capsules, intestinal patches, and use of ionic liquids. It also highlights some of the notable recent advancements and clinical trials in oral insulin delivery. This formulation based OIDS may significantly improve patient compliance in the treatment of diabetes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gayatri Iyer
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology, Institute of Chemical Technology, NP Marg, Matunga, Mumbai 400019, India
| | - Sathish Dyawanapelly
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology, Institute of Chemical Technology, NP Marg, Matunga, Mumbai 400019, India
| | - Ratnesh Jain
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Institute of Chemical Technology, Matunga, Mumbai 400019, India.
| | - Prajakta Dandekar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology, Institute of Chemical Technology, NP Marg, Matunga, Mumbai 400019, India.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Hassanen EI, Ebedy YA, Ibrahim MA, Farroh KY, Elshazly MO. Insights overview on the possible protective effect of chitosan nanoparticles encapsulation against neurotoxicity induced by carbendazim in rats. Neurotoxicology 2022; 91:31-43. [PMID: 35513110 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2022.04.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2021] [Revised: 04/25/2022] [Accepted: 04/28/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Carbendazim (CBZ) contamination of food and water is a principal factor in many negative impacts on public health. Nanoencapsulation of agrochemicals by nontoxic polymers as chitosan nanoparticles (CS-NPs) is one of the most applications of nanotechnology in agriculture. Despite its many advantages, such as it provides controlled release property, more stability and solubility of the active ingredient, it is not authorized to be used in the market because there are no adequate studies on the nano pesticides induced toxicity on experimental animals. So, we aim to study the possible impacts of CBZ-loading CS-NPs on the whole brain of rats and to explain its mechanism of action. 20 male Wistar rats were partitioned into 4 groups as follows: Group (1), normal saline; group (2), 5 mg/kg CS-NPs; group (3), 300 mg/kg CBZ; group (4) 300 mg/kg CS/CBZ-NCs. After 28 days, some neurobehavioral parameters were assessed to all rats then euthanization was done to collect the brain. Our results revealed that CBZ prompted neurotoxicity manifested by severe neurobehavioral changes and a significant increase of MDA with a decrease of GSH and CAT in brain tissue. In addition, there were severe neuropathological alterations confirmed by immunohistochemistry which showed strong bax, GFAP, and TNF-ὰ protein expression in some brain areas. CBZ also induced apoptosis manifested by up-regulation of JNK and P53 with down-regulation of Bcl-2 in brain tissue. Otherwise, encapsulation of CBZ with CS-NPs could reduce CBZ-induced neurotoxicity and improve all studied toxicological parameters. We recommend using CBZ-loading CS-NPs as an alternative approach for fungicide application in agricultural and veterinary practices but further studies are needed to ensure its safety on other organs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eman I Hassanen
- Pathology Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Cairo University, Egypt.
| | - Yasmin A Ebedy
- Pathology Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Cairo University, Egypt
| | - Marwa A Ibrahim
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Cairo University, Egypt
| | - Khaled Y Farroh
- Nanotechnology and Advanced Materials Central Lab, Agricultural Research Center, Egypt
| | - M O Elshazly
- Pathology Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Cairo University, Egypt
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Abdel-Moneim A, Ramadan H. Novel strategies to oral delivery of insulin: Current progress of nanocarriers for diabetes management. Drug Dev Res 2021; 83:301-316. [PMID: 34859477 DOI: 10.1002/ddr.21903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2021] [Revised: 10/30/2021] [Accepted: 11/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Diabetes mellitus is one of the most serious public health problems in the world. Repeated daily injections of subcutaneous insulin is the standard treatment for patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus; however, subcutaneous insulin injections can potentially cause local discomfort, patient noncompliance, hypoglycemia, failure to regulate glucose homeostasis, infections, and fat deposits at the injection sites. In recent years, numerous attempts have been made to produce safe and efficient nanoparticles for oral insulin delivery. Oral administration is considered the most effective alternative route to insulin injection, but it is accompanied by several challenges related to enzymatic proteolysis, digestive breakdown, and absorption barriers. A number of natural and synthetic polymeric, lipid-based, and inorganic nanoparticles have been investigated for use. Although improvements have recently been made in potential oral insulin delivery systems, these require further investigation before clinical trials are conducted. In this review, new approaches to oral insulin delivery for diabetes treatment are discussed, including polymeric, lipid-based, and inorganic nanoparticles, as well as the clinical trials performed for this purpose.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Adel Abdel-Moneim
- Molecular Physiology Division, Faculty of Science, Beni-Suef University, Beni-Suef, Egypt
| | - Hanaa Ramadan
- Histology and Molecular Cytology Division, Zoology Department, Faculty of Science, Beni-Suef University, Beni-Suef, Egypt
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Harriman R, Lewis JS. Bioderived materials that disarm the gut mucosal immune system: Potential lessons from commensal microbiota. Acta Biomater 2021; 133:187-207. [PMID: 34098091 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2021.05.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2021] [Revised: 04/25/2021] [Accepted: 05/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Over the course of evolution, mammals and gut commensal microbes have adapted to coexist with each other. This homeostatic coexistence is dependent on an intricate balance between tolerogenic and inflammatory responses directed towards beneficial, commensal microbes and pathogenic intruders, respectively. Immune tolerance towards the gut microflora is largely sustained by immunomodulatory molecules produced by the commensals, which protect the bacteria from immune advances and maintain the gut's unique tolerogenic microenvironment, as well as systemic homeostasis. The identification and characterization of commensal-derived, tolerogenic molecules could lead to their utilization in biomaterials-inspired delivery schemes involving nano/microparticles or hydrogels, and potentially lead to the next generation of commensal-derived therapeutics. Moreover, gut-on-chip technologies could augment the discovery and characterization of influential commensals by providing realistic in vitro models conducive to finicky microbes. In this review, we provide an overview of the gut immune system, describe its intricate relationships with the microflora and identify major genera involved in maintaining tolerogenic responses and peripheral homeostasis. More relevant to biomaterials, we discuss commensal-derived molecules that are known to interface with immune cells and discuss potential strategies for their incorporation into biomaterial-based strategies aimed at culling inflammatory diseases. We hope this review will bridge the current findings in gut immunology, microbiology and biomaterials and spark further investigation into this emerging field. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Despite its tremendous potential to culminate into revolutionary therapeutics, the synergy between immunology, microbiology, and biomaterials has only been explored at a superficial level. Strategic incorporation of biomaterial-based technologies may be necessary to fully characterize and capitalize on the rapidly growing repertoire of immunomodulatory molecules derived from commensal microbes. Bioengineers may be able to combine state-of-the-art delivery platforms with immunomodulatory cues from commensals to provide a more holistic approach to combating inflammatory disease. This interdisciplinary approach could potentiate a neoteric field of research - "commensal-inspired" therapeutics with the promise of revolutionizing the treatment of inflammatory disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rian Harriman
- University of California Davis, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Jamal S Lewis
- University of California Davis, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
PLGA-CS-PEG Microparticles for Controlled Drug Delivery in the Treatment of Triple Negative Breast Cancer Cells. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/app11157112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
In this study, we explore the development of controlled PLGA-CS-PEG microspheres, which are used to encapsulate model anticancer drugs (prodigiosin (PGS) or paclitaxel (PTX)) for controlled breast cancer treatment. The PLGA microspheres are blended with hydrophilic polymers (chitosan and polyethylene glycol) in the presence of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) that were synthesized via a water-oil-water (W/O/W) solvent evaporation technique. Chitosan (CS) and polyethylene glycol (PEG) were used as surface-modifying additives to improve the biocompatibility and reduce the adsorption of plasma proteins onto the microsphere surfaces. These PLGA-CS-PEG microspheres are loaded with varying concentrations (5 and 8 mg/mL) of PGS or PTX, respectively. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) revealed the morphological properties while Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) was used to elucidate the functional groups of drug-loaded PLGA-CS-PEG microparticles. A thirty-day, in vitro, encapsulated drug (PGS or PTX) release was carried out at 37 °C, which corresponds to human body temperature, and at 41 °C and 44 °C, which correspond to hyperthermic temperatures. The thermodynamics and kinetics of in vitro drug release were also elucidated using a combination of mathematical models and the experimental results. The exponents of the Korsmeyer–Peppas model showed that the kinetics of drug release was well characterized by anomalous non-Fickian drug release. Endothermic and nonspontaneous processes are also associated with the thermodynamics of drug release. Finally, the controlled in vitro release of cancer drugs (PGS and PTX) is shown to decrease the viability of MDA-MB-231 cells. The implications of the results are discussed for the development of drug-encapsulated PLGA-CS-PEG microparticles for the controlled release of cancer drugs in treatment of triple negative breast cancer.
Collapse
|
12
|
Macedo A, Filipe P, Thomé NG, Vieira J, Oliveira C, Teodósio C, Ferreira R, Roque L, Fonte P. A Brief Overview of the Oral Delivery of Insulin as an Alternative to the Parenteral Delivery. Curr Mol Med 2021; 20:134-143. [PMID: 31965934 DOI: 10.2174/1566524019666191010095522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2019] [Revised: 09/18/2019] [Accepted: 09/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Diabetes mellitus greatly affects the quality of life of patients and has a worldwide prevalence. Insulin is the most commonly used drug to treat diabetic patients and is usually administered through the subcutaneous route. However, this route of administration is ineffective due to the low concentration of insulin at the site of action. This route of administration causes discomfort to the patient and increases the risk of infection due to skin barrier disturbance caused by the needle. The oral administration of insulin has been proposed to surpass the disadvantages of subcutaneous administration. In this review, we give an overview of the strategies to deliver insulin by the oral route, from insulin conjugation to encapsulation into nanoparticles. These strategies are still under development to attain efficacy and effectiveness that are expected to be achieved in the near future.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ana Macedo
- LAQV, REQUIMTE, Department of Chemical Sciences - Applied Chemistry Lab, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal.,CBIOS, Universidade Lusófona Research Center for Biosciences & Health Technologies, Campo Grande 376, 1749-024 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Patrícia Filipe
- CBIOS, Universidade Lusófona Research Center for Biosciences & Health Technologies, Campo Grande 376, 1749-024 Lisboa, Portugal.,Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Alcalá, Ctra. Madrid-Barcelona Km. 33.600, 28871 Alcalá de Henares, Madrid, Spain
| | - Natália G Thomé
- Center for Marine Sciences (CCMAR), University of Algarve, Gambelas Campus, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal.,Department of Chemistry and Pharmacy, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, University of Algarve, Gambelas Campus, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal
| | - João Vieira
- CBIOS, Universidade Lusófona Research Center for Biosciences & Health Technologies, Campo Grande 376, 1749-024 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Carolina Oliveira
- CBIOS, Universidade Lusófona Research Center for Biosciences & Health Technologies, Campo Grande 376, 1749-024 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Catarina Teodósio
- CBIOS, Universidade Lusófona Research Center for Biosciences & Health Technologies, Campo Grande 376, 1749-024 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Raquel Ferreira
- CBIOS, Universidade Lusófona Research Center for Biosciences & Health Technologies, Campo Grande 376, 1749-024 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Luís Roque
- CBIOS, Universidade Lusófona Research Center for Biosciences & Health Technologies, Campo Grande 376, 1749-024 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Pedro Fonte
- LAQV, REQUIMTE, Department of Chemical Sciences - Applied Chemistry Lab, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal.,CBIOS, Universidade Lusófona Research Center for Biosciences & Health Technologies, Campo Grande 376, 1749-024 Lisboa, Portugal.,Center for Marine Sciences (CCMAR), University of Algarve, Gambelas Campus, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal.,Department of Chemistry and Pharmacy, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, University of Algarve, Gambelas Campus, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal.,IBB-Institute for Bioengineering and Biosciences, Department of Bioengineering, Instituto Superior Técnico, University of Lisbon, Avenida Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Feng S, Wang L, Shao P, Sun P, Yang CS. A review on chemical and physical modifications of phytosterols and their influence on bioavailability and safety. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2021; 62:5638-5657. [PMID: 33612007 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2021.1888692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Phytosterols have been shown to lower cholesterol levels and to have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and other biological activities. However, the high melting point and poor solubility limit their bioavailability and practical application. It is advantageous to modify phytosterols chemically and physically. This article reviews and discusses the chemical and physical modifications of phytosterols, as well as their effects on the bioavailability and possible toxicity in vivo. The current research on chemical modifications is mainly focused on esterification to increase the oil solubility and water solubility. For physical modifications (mainly microencapsulation), there are biopolymer-based, surfactant-based and lipid-based nanocarriers. Both chemical and physical modifications of phytosterols can effectively increase the absorption and bioavailability. The safety of modified phytosterols is also an important issue. Phytosterol esters are generally considered to be safe. However, phytosterol oxides, which may be produced during the synthesis of phytosterol esters, have shown toxicity in animal models. The toxicity of nanocarriers also needs further studies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Simin Feng
- College of Food Science and Technology, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, People's Republic of China.,Key Laboratory of Food Macromolecular Resources Processing Technology Research (Zhejiang University of Technology), China National Light Industry, Beijing, China.,Department of Chemical Biology, Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Rutgers The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, New Jersey, USA
| | - Liling Wang
- College of Food Science and Technology, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Ping Shao
- College of Food Science and Technology, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, People's Republic of China.,Key Laboratory of Food Macromolecular Resources Processing Technology Research (Zhejiang University of Technology), China National Light Industry, Beijing, China
| | - Peilong Sun
- College of Food Science and Technology, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, People's Republic of China.,Key Laboratory of Food Macromolecular Resources Processing Technology Research (Zhejiang University of Technology), China National Light Industry, Beijing, China
| | - Chung S Yang
- Department of Chemical Biology, Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Rutgers The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, New Jersey, USA
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Tong T, Wang L, You X, Wu J. Nano and microscale delivery platforms for enhanced oral peptide/protein bioavailability. Biomater Sci 2020; 8:5804-5823. [PMID: 33016274 DOI: 10.1039/d0bm01151g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, peptide/protein drugs have attracted considerable attention owing to their superior targeting and therapeutic effect and fewer side effects compared with chemical drugs. Oral administration modality with enhanced patient compliance is increasingly being recognized as an ideal route for peptide/protein delivery. However, the limited permeation efficiency and low oral bioavailability of peptide/protein drugs significantly hinder therapeutic advances. To address these problems, various nano and microscale delivery platforms have been developed, which offer significant advantages in oral peptide/protein delivery. In this review, we briefly introduce the transport mechanisms of oral peptide/protein delivery and the primary barriers to this delivery process. We also highlight the recent advances in various nano and microscale delivery platforms designed for oral peptide/protein delivery. We then summarize the existing strategies used in these delivery platforms to improve the oral bioavailability and permeation efficiency of peptide/protein therapeutics. Finally, we discuss the major challenges faced when nano and microscale systems are used for oral peptide/protein delivery. This review is expected to provide critical insight into the design and development of oral peptide/protein delivery systems with significant therapeutic advances.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tong Tong
- Key Laboratory of Sensing Technology and Biomedical Instrument of Guangdong, Province, School of Biomedical Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510006, PR China.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
15
|
Kim JU, Shahbaz HM, Lee H, Kim T, Yang K, Roh YH, Park J. Optimization of phytic acid-crosslinked chitosan microspheres for oral insulin delivery using response surface methodology. Int J Pharm 2020; 588:119736. [PMID: 32758596 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2020.119736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2020] [Revised: 07/16/2020] [Accepted: 08/02/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Although oral administration is favorable mode of insulin delivery, it is the most challenging route, owing to poor oral bioavailability. In this study, a chitosan (CS)-based insulin delivery system was developed by ionic crosslinking with phytic acid (PA). CS-PA microspheres were optimized with different crosslinking conditions of CS and PA using response surface methodology to retain insulin during preparation and gastric digestion. Furthermore, the in vitro release profile, morphological structure, cytotoxicity, and intestinal permeability of the optimized microspheres, and its hypoglycemic effect in diabetic rats were evaluated. Under optimal conditions, the entrapment efficiency was 97.1%, and 67.0% of insulin was retained in the microspheres after 2 h of gastric digestion followed by a sustained-release in intestinal fluid. Insulin was primarily distributed in the microsphere core with a monodisperse diameter of 663.3 μm. The microspheres increased the permeability of insulin across Caco-2/HT-29 monolayers by 1.6 times with negligible cytotoxicity. The microspheres had a relative pharmacological bioavailability of 10.6% and significantly reduced blood glucose levels with a long-lasting hypoglycemic effect after oral administration in diabetic rats. This study demonstrated that an optimized formulation of a simple ionic crosslinking system using CS and PA could facilitate efficient oral delivery of insulin.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jeong Un Kim
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Yonsei University, 50 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul 03722, South Korea
| | - Hafiz Muhammad Shahbaz
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore 54000, Pakistan
| | - Hyunah Lee
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Yonsei University, 50 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul 03722, South Korea
| | - Taehyung Kim
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Yonsei University, 50 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul 03722, South Korea
| | - Kyungjik Yang
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Yonsei University, 50 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul 03722, South Korea
| | - Young Hoon Roh
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Yonsei University, 50 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul 03722, South Korea.
| | - Jiyong Park
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Yonsei University, 50 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul 03722, South Korea.
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Lang X, Wang T, Sun M, Chen X, Liu Y. Advances and applications of chitosan-based nanomaterials as oral delivery carriers: A review. Int J Biol Macromol 2020; 154:433-445. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.03.148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2020] [Revised: 03/13/2020] [Accepted: 03/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
|
17
|
Sladek S, McCartney F, Eskander M, Dunne DJ, Santos-Martinez MJ, Benetti F, Tajber L, Brayden DJ. An Enteric-Coated Polyelectrolyte Nanocomplex Delivers Insulin in Rat Intestinal Instillations when Combined with a Permeation Enhancer. Pharmaceutics 2020; 12:pharmaceutics12030259. [PMID: 32178442 PMCID: PMC7151133 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics12030259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2020] [Revised: 03/03/2020] [Accepted: 03/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The use of nanocarriers is being researched to achieve oral peptide delivery. Insulin-associated anionic polyelectrolyte nanoparticle complexes (PECs) were formed that comprised hyaluronic acid and chitosan in an optimum mass mixing ratio of 5:1 (MR 5), followed by coating with a pH-dependent polymer. Free insulin was separated from PECs by size exclusion chromatography and then measured by HPLC. The association efficiency of insulin in PECs was >95% and the loading was ~83 µg/mg particles. Dynamic light scattering and nanoparticle tracking analysis of PECs revealed low polydispersity, a negative zeta potential range of −40 to −50 mV, and a diameter range of 95–200 nm. Dissolution studies in simulated small intestinal fluid (FaSSIF-V2) revealed that the PECs were colloidally stable. PECs that were coated with Eudragit® L-100 delayed insulin release in FaSSIF-V2 and protected insulin against pancreatin attack more than uncoated PECs. Uncoated anionic PECs interacted weakly with mucin in vitro and were non-cytotoxic to Caco-2 cells. The coated and uncoated PECs, both concentrated further by ultrafiltration, permitted dosing of 50 IU/kg in rat jejunal instillations, but they failed to reduce plasma glucose or deliver insulin to the blood. When ad-mixed with the permeation enhancer (PE), sucrose laurate (100 mM), the physicochemical parameters of coated PECs were relatively unchanged, however blood glucose was reduced by 70%. In conclusion, the use of a PE allowed for the PEC-released bioactive insulin to permeate the jejunum. This has implications for the design of orally delivered particles that can release the payload when formulated with enhancers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Svenja Sladek
- UCD School of Veterinary Medicine and UCD Conway Institute, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland; (S.S.); (F.M.)
| | - Fiona McCartney
- UCD School of Veterinary Medicine and UCD Conway Institute, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland; (S.S.); (F.M.)
| | - Mena Eskander
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland; (M.E.); (D.J.D.); (M.J.S.-M.); (L.T.)
| | - David J. Dunne
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland; (M.E.); (D.J.D.); (M.J.S.-M.); (L.T.)
| | - Maria Jose Santos-Martinez
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland; (M.E.); (D.J.D.); (M.J.S.-M.); (L.T.)
- School of Medicine, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Federico Benetti
- ECSIN Laboratory–Ecamricert Srl, Corso Stati Uniti 4, I-35127 Padova, Italy;
| | - Lidia Tajber
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland; (M.E.); (D.J.D.); (M.J.S.-M.); (L.T.)
| | - David J. Brayden
- UCD School of Veterinary Medicine and UCD Conway Institute, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland; (S.S.); (F.M.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +353-1716-6013
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Marques C, Som C, Schmutz M, Borges O, Borchard G. How the Lack of Chitosan Characterization Precludes Implementation of the Safe-by-Design Concept. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2020; 8:165. [PMID: 32211394 PMCID: PMC7077258 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2020.00165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2019] [Accepted: 02/18/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Efficacy and safety of nanomedicines based on polymeric (bio)materials will benefit from a rational implementation of a Safe-by-Design (SbD) approach throughout their development. In order to achieve this goal, however, a standardization of preparation and characterization methods and their accurate reporting is needed. Focusing on the example of chitosan, a biopolymer derived from chitin and frequently used in drug and vaccine delivery vector preparation, this review discusses the challenges still to be met and overcome prior to a successful implementation of the SbD approach to the preparation of chitosan-based protein drug delivery systems.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cíntia Marques
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Western Switzerland, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland.,Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Claudia Som
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Technology and Society Laboratory, St. Gallen, Switzerland
| | - Mélanie Schmutz
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Technology and Society Laboratory, St. Gallen, Switzerland
| | - Olga Borges
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal.,Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Gerrit Borchard
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Western Switzerland, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Jesus S, Marques AP, Duarte A, Soares E, Costa JP, Colaço M, Schmutz M, Som C, Borchard G, Wick P, Borges O. Chitosan Nanoparticles: Shedding Light on Immunotoxicity and Hemocompatibility. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2020; 8:100. [PMID: 32154232 PMCID: PMC7047933 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2020.00100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2019] [Accepted: 02/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Nanoparticles (NPs) assumed an important role in the area of drug delivery. Despite the number of studies including NPs are growing over the last years, their side effects on the immune system are often ignored or omitted. One of the most studied polymers in the nano based drug delivery system field is chitosan (Chit). In the scientific literature, although the physicochemical properties [molecular weight (MW) or deacetylation degree (DDA)] of the chitosan, endotoxin contamination and appropriate testing controls are rarely reported, they can strongly influence immunotoxicity results. The present work aimed to study the immunotoxicity of NPs produced with different DDA and MW Chit polymers and to benchmark it against the polymer itself. Chit NPs were prepared based on the ionic gelation of Chit with sodium tripolyphosphate (TPP). This method allowed the production of two different NPs: Chit 80% NPs (80% DDA) and Chit 93% NPs (93% DDA). In general, we found greater reduction in cell viability induced by Chit NPs than the respective Chit polymers when tested in vitro using human peripheral blood monocytes (PBMCs) or RAW 264.7 cell line. In addition, Chit 80% NPs were more cytotoxic for PBMCs, increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) production (above 156 μg/mL) in the RAW 264.7 cell line and interfered with the intrinsic pathway of coagulation (at 1 mg/mL) when compared to Chit 93% NPs. On the other hand, only Chit 93% NPs induced platelet aggregation (at 2 mg/mL). Although Chit NPs and Chit polymers did not stimulate the nitric oxide (NO) production in RAW 264.7 cells, they induced a decrease in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced NO production at all tested concentrations. None of Chit NPs and polymers caused hemolysis, nor induced PBMCs to secrete TNF-α and IL-6 cytokines. From the obtained results we concluded that the DDA of the Chit polymer and the size of Chit NPs influence the in vitro immunotoxicity results. As the NPs are more cytotoxic than the corresponding polymers, one should be careful in the extrapolation of trends from the polymer to the NPs, and in the comparisons among delivery systems prepared with different DDA chitosans.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Jesus
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Ana Patrícia Marques
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Alana Duarte
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal.,Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Edna Soares
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal.,Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - João Panão Costa
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal.,Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Mariana Colaço
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal.,Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Mélanie Schmutz
- Laboratory for Technology and Society, Empa Swiss Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, St. Gallen, Switzerland
| | - Claudia Som
- Laboratory for Technology and Society, Empa Swiss Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, St. Gallen, Switzerland
| | - Gerrit Borchard
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Western Switzerland, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Peter Wick
- Laboratory for Particles-Biology Interactions, Empa Swiss Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, St. Gallen, Switzerland
| | - Olga Borges
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal.,Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Bahman F, Greish K, Taurin S. Nanotechnology in Insulin Delivery for Management of Diabetes. Pharm Nanotechnol 2019; 7:113-128. [PMID: 30907328 DOI: 10.2174/2211738507666190321110721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2019] [Revised: 02/22/2019] [Accepted: 03/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Diabetes is a group of diseases characterized by hyperglycemia and originating from the deficiency or resistance to insulin, or both. Ultimately, the most effective treatment for patients with diabetes involves subcutaneous injections of insulin. However, this route of administration is often painful and inconvenient, as most patients will have to selfadminister it at least twice a day for the rest of their lives. Also, infection, insulin precipitation, and either lipoatrophy or lipohypertrophy are frequently observed at the site of injection. To date, several alternative routes of insulin administration have been explored, including nasal, pulmonary and oral. Although the delivery of insulin is an ideal route for diabetic patients, several limitations have to be overcome such as the rapid degradation of insulin in gastric fluid and low oral bioavailability. Numerous strategies have been carried out to improve these limited parameters such as the use of enzyme inhibitors, absorption enhancers, mucoadhesive polymers and chemical modification for receptor-mediated absorption. Also, insulin-loaded nanocarriers bypass several physiological barriers. This current review focuses on the various barriers existing in the delivery of insulin through the oral route and the strategies undertaken so far to overcome those obstacles using nanocarriers as a potential vehicle of insulin.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fatemah Bahman
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Princess Al-Jawhara Centre for Molecular Medicine, School of Medicine and Medical sciences, Arabian Gulf University, Manama, Bahrain
| | - Khaled Greish
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Princess Al-Jawhara Centre for Molecular Medicine, School of Medicine and Medical sciences, Arabian Gulf University, Manama, Bahrain
| | - Sebastien Taurin
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Princess Al-Jawhara Centre for Molecular Medicine, School of Medicine and Medical sciences, Arabian Gulf University, Manama, Bahrain
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Yuan D, O'Riordan ED, Jacquier JC. Development of a first order derivative spectrophotometry method to rapidly quantify protein in the presence of chitosan and its application in protein encapsulation systems. Food Chem 2019; 289:1-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2019.02.121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2018] [Revised: 01/28/2019] [Accepted: 02/24/2019] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
|
22
|
He S, Fu W, Zou M, Xing W, Liu Z, Xu D. Construction and evaluation of SAK-HV protein oral dosage form based on chitosan quaternary ammonium salt-PLGA microsphere. J Drug Target 2019; 27:1108-1117. [DOI: 10.1080/1061186x.2019.1605520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Shiming He
- Institute of Military Cognition and Brain Sciences, Beijing, China
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hebei University, Baoding, China
| | - Wenliang Fu
- Institute of Military Cognition and Brain Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Minji Zou
- Institute of Military Cognition and Brain Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Weiwei Xing
- Institute of Military Cognition and Brain Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Zhongcheng Liu
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hebei University, Baoding, China
| | - Donggang Xu
- Institute of Military Cognition and Brain Sciences, Beijing, China
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Gooneh-Farahani S, Naimi-Jamal MR, Naghib SM. Stimuli-responsive graphene-incorporated multifunctional chitosan for drug delivery applications: a review. Expert Opin Drug Deliv 2018; 16:79-99. [PMID: 30514124 DOI: 10.1080/17425247.2019.1556257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Recently, the use of chitosan (CS) in the drug delivery has reached an acceptable maturity. Graphene-based drug delivery is also increasing rapidly due to its unique physical, mechanical, chemical, and electrical properties. Therefore, the combination of CS and graphene can provide a promising carrier for the loading and controlled release of therapeutic agents. AREAS COVERED In this review, we will outline the advantages of this new drug delivery system (DDS) in association with CS and graphene alone and will list the various forms of these carriers, which have been studied in recent years as DDSs. Finally, we will discuss the application of this hybrid composite in other fields. EXPERT OPINION The introducing the GO amends the mechanical characteristics of CS, which is a major problem in the use of CS-based carriers in drug delivery due to burst release in a CS-based controlled release system through the poor mechanical strength of CS. Many related research on this area are still not fully unstated and occasionally they seem inconsistent in spite of the intent to be complementary. Therefore, a sensitive review may be needed to understand the role of graphene in CS/graphene carriers for future drug delivery applications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sahar Gooneh-Farahani
- a Research Laboratory of Green Organic Synthesis and Polymers, Chemistry Department , Iran University of Science and Technology (IUST) , Tehran , Iran
| | - M Reza Naimi-Jamal
- a Research Laboratory of Green Organic Synthesis and Polymers, Chemistry Department , Iran University of Science and Technology (IUST) , Tehran , Iran
| | - Seyed Morteza Naghib
- b Nanotechnology Department, School of New Technologies , Iran University of Science and Technology (IUST) , Tehran , Iran
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Hu Q, Luo Y. Recent advances of polysaccharide-based nanoparticles for oral insulin delivery. Int J Biol Macromol 2018; 120:775-782. [PMID: 30170057 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2018.08.152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2018] [Revised: 07/25/2018] [Accepted: 08/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Diabetes mellitus is a highly prevalent metabolic and chronic disease affecting millions of people in the world. The most common route of insulin therapy is the subcutaneous injection due to its low bioavailability and enzymatic degradation. The search for effective and high patient compliance insulin delivery systems has been a major challenge over many decades. The polysaccharide-based nanoparticles as delivery vehicles for insulin oral administration have recently attracted substantial interests. The present review highlights the recent advances on the development of nanoparticles prepared from polysaccharides, including chitosan, alginate, dextran and glucan, for oral delivery of insulin, overcoming multiple barriers in gastrointestinal tract. The aims of this review are first to summarize the strategies that have been applied in the past 5 years to fabricate polysaccharide-based nanoparticles for insulin oral delivery, and then to provide in-depth understanding on the mechanisms by which such nanoparticles protect insulin against degradation in the digestive tract and provide sustained release to enhance mucus permeation and transepithelial transport of insulin administered via oral route.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Qiaobin Hu
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA
| | - Yangchao Luo
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Abstract
Oral delivery is the most common method of drug administration with high safety and good compliance for patients. However, delivering therapeutic proteins to the target site via oral route involves tremendous challenge due to unfavourable conditions like biochemical barrier, mucus barrier and epithelial barriers. According to the functional differences of various protein drug delivery systems, the recent advances in pH responsive polymer-based drug delivery system, mucoadhesive polymer-based drug delivery system, absorption enhancers-based drug delivery system and composite polymer-based delivery system all were briefly summarised in this review, which not only clarified the clinic potential of these novel drug delivery systems, but also described the way for increasing oral bioavailability of therapeutic protein.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shiming He
- a Institute of Military Cognition and Brain Sciences , Beijing , China.,b College of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Hebei University , Baoding , China.,c Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Quality Control of Hebei Province, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Hebei university , Baoding , China
| | - Zhongcheng Liu
- b College of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Hebei University , Baoding , China.,c Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Quality Control of Hebei Province, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Hebei university , Baoding , China
| | - Donggang Xu
- a Institute of Military Cognition and Brain Sciences , Beijing , China
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Shalaby TI, El-Refaie WM. Bioadhesive Chitosan-Coated Cationic Nanoliposomes With Improved Insulin Encapsulation and Prolonged Oral Hypoglycemic Effect in Diabetic Mice. J Pharm Sci 2018; 107:2136-2143. [PMID: 29689252 DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2018.04.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2017] [Revised: 03/07/2018] [Accepted: 04/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Oral administration of insulin is hampered by the lack of carriers that can efficiently achieve high encapsulation, avoid gastric degradation, overcome mucosal barriers, and prolong the hypoglycemic effect. Chitosan (CS)-coated insulin-loaded cationic liposomes have been developed and optimized for improved oral delivery. Liposomes were prepared cationic to improve insulin encapsulation. CS was selected as a mucoadhesive coat to prolong the system's residence and absorption. The performance of CS-coated liposomes compared with uncoated liposomes was examined in vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo in streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice. Free uncoated liposomes showed high positive zeta potential of +58.8 ± 2.2 mV that reduced (+29.9 ± 1.4 mV) after insulin encapsulation, confirming the obtained high entrapment efficiency of 87.5 ± 0.6%. CS-coated liposomes showed nanosize of 439.0 ± 12.3 nm and zeta potential of +60.5 ± 1.9 mV. In vitro insulin release was limited to 18.9 ± 0.35% in simulated gastric fluid, whereas in simulated intestinal fluid, 73.33 ± 0.68% was released after 48 h from CS-coated liposomes. Ex vivo intestinal mucoadhesion showed increased tissue residence of CS-coated liposomes compared with uncoated liposomes. A striking reduction in the glucose level was observed 1 h after oral administration of CS-coated liposomes and maintained up to 8 h (p <0.01 vs. insulin solution or uncoated liposomes) within the normal value 129.29 ± 3.15 mg/dL. In conclusion, CS-coated insulin-loaded cationic liposomes improved loading efficiency with promising prolonged pharmacological effect.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Thanaa I Shalaby
- Department of Medical Biophysics, Medical Research Institute, Alexandria University, Egypt
| | - Wessam M El-Refaie
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmacy and Drug Manufacturing, Pharos University in Alexandria, Egypt.
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Nur M, Vasiljevic T. Can natural polymers assist in delivering insulin orally? Int J Biol Macromol 2017; 103:889-901. [PMID: 28552728 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2017.05.138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2017] [Revised: 05/01/2017] [Accepted: 05/23/2017] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Diabetes mellitus is one of the most grave and lethal non communicable diseases. Insulin is normally used to medicate diabetes. Due to bioavailability issues, the most regular route of administration is through injection, which may pose compliance problems to treatment. The oral administration thus appears as a suitable alternative, but with several important problems. Low stability of insulin in the gastrointestinal tract and low intestinal permeation are some of the issues. Encapsulation of insulin into polymer-based particles emerges as a plausible strategy. Different encapsulation approaches and polymers have been used in this regard. Polymers with different characteristics from natural or synthetic origin have been assessed to attain this goal, with natural polymers being preferable. Natural polymers studied so far include chitosan, alginate, carrageenan, starch, pectin, casein, tragacanth, dextran, carrageenan, gelatine and cyclodextrin. While some promising knowledge and results have been gained, a polymeric-based particle system to deliver insulin orally has not been introduced onto the market yet. In this review, effectiveness of different natural polymer materials developed so far along with fabrication techniques are evaluated.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mokhamad Nur
- Advanced Food Systems Research Unit, College of Health and Biomedicine, Victoria University, PO Box 14428, Melbourne, 8001, Australia; Department of Agricultural Product Technology, Faculty of Agricultural Technology, Brawijaya University, Jl. Veteran, 65145, Malang, Indonesia
| | - Todor Vasiljevic
- Advanced Food Systems Research Unit, College of Health and Biomedicine, Victoria University, PO Box 14428, Melbourne, 8001, Australia.
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Oroval M, Díez P, Aznar E, Coll C, Marcos MD, Sancenón F, Villalonga R, Martínez-Máñez R. Self-Regulated Glucose-Sensitive Neoglycoenzyme-Capped Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles for Insulin Delivery. Chemistry 2016; 23:1353-1360. [DOI: 10.1002/chem.201604104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mar Oroval
- Instituto Interuniversitario de Investigación de Reconocimiento Molecular y Desarrollo Tecnológico; Unidad Mixta Universitat Politècnica de València; Universitat de València; Camino de Vera s/n 46022 Valencia Spain
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN); Spain
| | - Paula Díez
- Nanosensors & Nanomachines Group; Department of Analytical Chemistry; Faculty of Chemistry; Complutense University of Madrid; 28040 Madrid Spain
| | - Elena Aznar
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN); Spain
- Instituto Interuniversitario de Investigación de Reconocimiento Molecular y Desarrollo Tecnológico; Unidad Mixta Universitat Politècnica de València; Universitat de València; Camino de Vera s/n 46022 Valencia Spain
| | - Carmen Coll
- Instituto Interuniversitario de Investigación de Reconocimiento Molecular y Desarrollo Tecnológico; Unidad Mixta Universitat Politècnica de València; Universitat de València; Camino de Vera s/n 46022 Valencia Spain
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN); Spain
| | - María Dolores Marcos
- Instituto Interuniversitario de Investigación de Reconocimiento Molecular y Desarrollo Tecnológico; Unidad Mixta Universitat Politècnica de València; Universitat de València; Camino de Vera s/n 46022 Valencia Spain
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN); Spain
- Departamento de Química; Universitat Politècnica de València; Camino de Vera s/n 46022 València Spain
| | - Félix Sancenón
- Instituto Interuniversitario de Investigación de Reconocimiento Molecular y Desarrollo Tecnológico; Unidad Mixta Universitat Politècnica de València; Universitat de València; Camino de Vera s/n 46022 Valencia Spain
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN); Spain
- Departamento de Química; Universitat Politècnica de València; Camino de Vera s/n 46022 València Spain
| | - Reynaldo Villalonga
- Nanosensors & Nanomachines Group; Department of Analytical Chemistry; Faculty of Chemistry; Complutense University of Madrid; 28040 Madrid Spain
| | - Ramón Martínez-Máñez
- Instituto Interuniversitario de Investigación de Reconocimiento Molecular y Desarrollo Tecnológico; Unidad Mixta Universitat Politècnica de València; Universitat de València; Camino de Vera s/n 46022 Valencia Spain
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN); Spain
- Departamento de Química; Universitat Politècnica de València; Camino de Vera s/n 46022 València Spain
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Yu D, Li S, Wang S, Li X, Zhu M, Huang S, Sun L, Zhang Y, Liu Y, Wang S. Development and Characterization of VEGF165-Chitosan Nanoparticles for the Treatment of Radiation-Induced Skin Injury in Rats. Mar Drugs 2016; 14:md14100182. [PMID: 27727163 PMCID: PMC5082330 DOI: 10.3390/md14100182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2016] [Revised: 08/30/2016] [Accepted: 08/31/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Radiation-induced skin injury, which remains a serious concern in radiation therapy, is currently believed to be the result of vascular endothelial cell injury and apoptosis. Here, we established a model of acute radiation-induced skin injury and compared the effect of different vascular growth factors on skin healing by observing the changes of microcirculation and cell apoptosis. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) was more effective at inhibiting apoptosis and preventing injury progression than other factors. A new strategy for improving the bioavailability of vascular growth factors was developed by loading VEGF with chitosan nanoparticles. The VEGF-chitosan nanoparticles showed a protective effect on vascular endothelial cells, improved the local microcirculation, and delayed the development of radioactive skin damage.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daojiang Yu
- Department of Plastic Surgery, the Second Affiliated Hospital, Soochow University, Suzhou 215004, China.
- Department of Pathology, School of Biology & Basic Medical Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China.
| | - Shan Li
- College of Pharmaceutical Science, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China.
| | - Shuai Wang
- Department of Plastic Surgery, the Second Affiliated Hospital, Soochow University, Suzhou 215004, China.
| | - Xiujie Li
- Department of Plastic Surgery, the Second Affiliated Hospital, Soochow University, Suzhou 215004, China.
| | - Minsheng Zhu
- Department of Pathology, School of Biology & Basic Medical Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China.
| | - Shai Huang
- Department of Pathology, School of Biology & Basic Medical Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China.
| | - Li Sun
- Department of Pathology, School of Biology & Basic Medical Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China.
| | - Yongsheng Zhang
- Department of Pathology, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou 215004, China.
| | - Yanli Liu
- College of Pharmaceutical Science, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China.
| | - Shouli Wang
- Department of Pathology, School of Biology & Basic Medical Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China.
- Institute of Radiology & Oncology, Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China.
- Suzhou Key Laboratory of Tumor Microenvironment Pathology, Suzhou 215123, China.
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Insua I, Wilkinson A, Fernandez-Trillo F. Polyion complex (PIC) particles: Preparation and biomedical applications. Eur Polym J 2016; 81:198-215. [PMID: 27524831 PMCID: PMC4973809 DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2016.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2016] [Revised: 06/01/2016] [Accepted: 06/03/2016] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Oppositely charged polyions can self-assemble in solution to form colloidal polyion complex (PIC) particles. Such nanomaterials can be loaded with charged therapeutics such as DNA, drugs or probes for application as novel nanomedicines and chemical sensors to detect disease markers. A comprehensive discussion of the factors affecting PIC particle self-assembly and their response to physical and chemical stimuli in solution is described herein. Finally, a collection of key examples of polyionic nanoparticles for biomedical applications is discussed to illustrate their behaviour and demonstrate the potential of PIC nanoparticles in medicine.
Collapse
|
31
|
Lee JH, Sahu A, Choi WI, Lee JY, Tae G. ZOT-derived peptide and chitosan functionalized nanocarrier for oral delivery of protein drug. Biomaterials 2016; 103:160-169. [PMID: 27380442 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2016.06.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2016] [Revised: 06/22/2016] [Accepted: 06/25/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
In this study, we developed a dual ligand functionalized pluronic-based nanocarrier (NC) for oral delivery of insulin. Chitosan and zonula occludins toxin (ZOT)-derived, tight junction opening peptide were conjugated to NC to increase the permeability of loaded insulin across the small intestine through the paracellular pathway. Surface functionalized NC, either by chitosan or peptide, could modulate the tight junction (TJ) integrity in contrast to no effect of unmodified NC, as evidenced by the change in transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) and immunostaining of Claudin-4, a tight junction marker, in Caco-2 cell monolayer. On the other hand, dual ligand (chitosan and peptide) functionalized NC significantly further increased the permeation of insulin across Caco-2 cell monolayer. More importantly, insulin loaded, dual ligand functionalized NC could increase the plasma insulin level and efficiently regulate the glycemic response for a prolonged period of time (∼1 day) upon oral administration to diabetic rats, whereas delivery of insulin by single ligand functionalized NCs, either by chitosan or peptide, as well as by unmodified NC and free insulin, could not induce the effective regulation of the blood glucose level. The use of fluorescence dye labeled insulin (FITC-insulin) and Cy5.5 labeled NC revealed that both insulin and dual ligand functionalized NC were adequately penetrated across the whole intestine villi in contrast to limited adsorption of insulin and NC mainly onto the epithelial surface of the intestine for single ligand functionalized NCs. These results suggest that dual conjugation of ZOT-derived peptide and chitosan is a promising approach to functionalize the surface of nanocarrier for oral delivery of protein drugs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jong Hyun Lee
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, 123 Cheomdan-gwagiro, Buk-gu, Gwangju 61005, Republic of Korea
| | - Abhishek Sahu
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, 123 Cheomdan-gwagiro, Buk-gu, Gwangju 61005, Republic of Korea
| | - Won Il Choi
- Center for Convergence Bioceramic Materials, Convergence R&D Division, Korea Institute of Ceramic Engineering and Technology, 101, Soho-ro, Jinju-si, Gyeongsangnam-do 52851, Republic of Korea
| | - Jae Young Lee
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, 123 Cheomdan-gwagiro, Buk-gu, Gwangju 61005, Republic of Korea
| | - Giyoong Tae
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, 123 Cheomdan-gwagiro, Buk-gu, Gwangju 61005, Republic of Korea; Center for Theragnosis, Biomedical Research Institute, KIST, Seoul 02792, Republic of Korea.
| |
Collapse
|
32
|
Ravindranathan S, Koppolu BP, Smith SG, Zaharoff DA. Effect of Chitosan Properties on Immunoreactivity. Mar Drugs 2016; 14:md14050091. [PMID: 27187416 PMCID: PMC4882565 DOI: 10.3390/md14050091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2016] [Revised: 04/15/2016] [Accepted: 05/02/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Chitosan is a widely investigated biopolymer in drug and gene delivery, tissue engineering and vaccine development. However, the immune response to chitosan is not clearly understood due to contradicting results in literature regarding its immunoreactivity. Thus, in this study, we analyzed effects of various biochemical properties, namely degree of deacetylation (DDA), viscosity/polymer length and endotoxin levels, on immune responses by antigen presenting cells (APCs). Chitosan solutions from various sources were treated with mouse and human APCs (macrophages and/or dendritic cells) and the amount of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) released by the cells was used as an indicator of immunoreactivity. Our results indicate that only endotoxin content and not DDA or viscosity influenced chitosan-induced immune responses. Our data also indicate that low endotoxin chitosan (<0.01 EU/mg) ranging from 20 to 600 cP and 80% to 97% DDA is essentially inert. This study emphasizes the need for more complete characterization and purification of chitosan in preclinical studies in order for this valuable biomaterial to achieve widespread clinical application.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sruthi Ravindranathan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, USA.
| | - Bhanu Prasanth Koppolu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, USA.
| | - Sean G Smith
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, USA.
| | - David A Zaharoff
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, USA.
| |
Collapse
|