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Audet-Delage Y, Rouleau M, Villeneuve L, Guillemette C. The Glycosyltransferase Pathway: An Integrated Analysis of the Cell Metabolome. Metabolites 2022; 12:metabo12101006. [PMID: 36295907 PMCID: PMC9609030 DOI: 10.3390/metabo12101006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2022] [Revised: 10/18/2022] [Accepted: 10/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Nucleotide sugar-dependent glycosyltransferases (UGTs) are critical to the homeostasis of endogenous metabolites and the detoxification of xenobiotics. Their impact on the cell metabolome remains unknown. Cellular metabolic changes resulting from human UGT expression were profiled by untargeted metabolomics. The abundant UGT1A1 and UGT2B7 were studied as UGT prototypes along with their alternative (alt.) splicing-derived isoforms displaying structural differences. Nineteen biochemical routes were modified, beyond known UGT substrates. Significant variations in glycolysis and pyrimidine pathways, and precursors of the co-substrate UDP-glucuronic acid were observed. Bioactive lipids such as arachidonic acid and endocannabinoids were highly enriched by up to 13.3-fold (p < 0.01) in cells expressing the canonical enzymes. Alt. UGT2B7 induced drastic and unique metabolic perturbations, including higher glucose (18-fold) levels and tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA) cycle metabolites and abrogated the effects of the UGT2B7 canonical enzyme when co-expressed. UGT1A1 proteins promoted the accumulation of branched-chain amino acids (BCAA) and TCA metabolites upstream of the mitochondrial oxoglutarate dehydrogenase complex (OGDC). Alt. UGT1A1 exacerbated these changes, likely through its interaction with the OGDC component oxoglutarate dehydrogenase-like (OGDHL). This study expands the breadth of biochemical pathways associated with UGT expression and establishes extensive connectivity between UGT enzymes, alt. proteins and other metabolic processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yannick Audet-Delage
- Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Québec Research Center—Université Laval, Faculty of Pharmacy, and Université Laval Cancer Research Center (CRC), R4720, 2705 Blvd Laurier, Québec, QC G1V 4G2, Canada
| | - Michèle Rouleau
- Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Québec Research Center—Université Laval, Faculty of Pharmacy, and Université Laval Cancer Research Center (CRC), R4720, 2705 Blvd Laurier, Québec, QC G1V 4G2, Canada
| | - Lyne Villeneuve
- Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Québec Research Center—Université Laval, Faculty of Pharmacy, and Université Laval Cancer Research Center (CRC), R4720, 2705 Blvd Laurier, Québec, QC G1V 4G2, Canada
| | - Chantal Guillemette
- Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Québec Research Center—Université Laval, Faculty of Pharmacy, and Université Laval Cancer Research Center (CRC), R4720, 2705 Blvd Laurier, Québec, QC G1V 4G2, Canada
- Canada Research Chair in Pharmacogenomics, Université Laval, Québec, QC G1V 4G2, Canada
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-(418)-654-2296
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Meng CL, Zhao W, Zhong DN. Epigenetics and microRNAs in UGT1As. Hum Genomics 2021; 15:30. [PMID: 34034810 PMCID: PMC8147421 DOI: 10.1186/s40246-021-00331-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2020] [Accepted: 05/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs) are the main phase II drug-metabolizing enzymes mediating the most extensive glucuronidation-binding reaction in the human body. The UGT1A family is involved in more than half of glucuronidation reactions. However, significant differences exist in the distribution of UGT1As in vivo and the expression of UGT1As among individuals, and these differences are related to the occurrence of disease and differences in metabolism. In addition to genetic polymorphisms, there is now interest in the contribution of epigenetics and noncoding RNAs (especially miRNAs) to this differential change. Epigenetics regulates UGT1As pretranscriptionally through DNA methylation and histone modification, and miRNAs are considered the key mechanism of posttranscriptional regulation of UGT1As. Both epigenetic inheritance and miRNAs are involved in the differences in sex expression and in vivo distribution of UGT1As. Moreover, epigenetic changes early in life have been shown to affect gene expression throughout life. Here, we review and summarize the current regulatory role of epigenetics in the UGT1A family and discuss the relationship among epigenetics and UGT1A-related diseases and treatment, with references for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cui-Lan Meng
- Department of Pediatrics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, No. 6 Shuangyong Road, Nanning City, Guangxi, China
| | - Wei Zhao
- Department of Pediatrics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, No. 6 Shuangyong Road, Nanning City, Guangxi, China
| | - Dan-Ni Zhong
- Department of Pediatrics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, No. 6 Shuangyong Road, Nanning City, Guangxi, China.
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Smith A, Page BDG, Collier AC, Coughtrie MWH. Homology Modeling of Human Uridine-5'-diphosphate-glucuronosyltransferase 1A6 Reveals Insights into Factors Influencing Substrate and Cosubstrate Binding. ACS OMEGA 2020; 5:6872-6887. [PMID: 32258923 PMCID: PMC7114752 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.0c00205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2020] [Accepted: 03/11/2020] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
The elimination of numerous endogenous compounds and xenobiotics via glucuronidation by uridine-5'-diphosphate glycosyltransferase enzymes (UGTs) is an essential process of the body's chemical defense system. UGTs have distinct but overlapping substrate preferences, but the molecular basis for their substrate specificity remains poorly understood. Three-dimensional protein structures can greatly enhance our understanding of the interactions between enzymes and their substrates, but because of the inherent difficulties in purifying and crystallizing integral endoplasmic reticulum membrane proteins, no complete mammalian UGT structure has yet been produced. To address this problem, we have created a homology model of UGT1A6 using I-TASSER to explore, in detail, the interactions of human UGT1A6 with its substrates. Ligands were docked into our model in the presence of the cosubstrate uridine-5'-diphosphate-glucuronic acid, interacting residues were examined, and poses were compared to those cocrystallized with various plant and bacterial glycosyltransferases (GTs). Our model structurally resembles other GTs, and docking experiments replicated many of the expected UGT-substrate interactions. Some bias toward the template structures' protein-substrate interactions and binding preferences was evident.
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Drug-metabolizing enzymes: role in drug resistance in cancer. Clin Transl Oncol 2020; 22:1667-1680. [PMID: 32170639 DOI: 10.1007/s12094-020-02325-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2019] [Accepted: 02/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Although continuous researches are going on for the discovery of new chemotherapeutic agents, resistance to these anticancer agents has made it really difficult to reach the fruitful results. There are many causes for this resistance that are being studied by the researchers across the world, but still, success is far because there are several factors that are going along unattended or have been studied less. Drug-metabolizing enzymes (DMEs) are one of these factors, on which less study has been conducted. DMEs include Phase I and Phase II enzymes. Cytochrome P450s (CYPs) are major Phase I enzymes while glutathione-S-transferases (GSTs), UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs), dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenases are the major enzymes belonging to the Phase II enzymes. These enzymes play an important role in detoxification of the xenobiotics as well as the metabolism of drugs, depending upon the tissue in which they are expressed. When present in tumorous tissues, they cause resistance by metabolizing the drugs and rendering them inactive. In this review, the role of these various enzymes in anticancer drug metabolism and the possibilities for overcoming the resistance have been discussed.
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Emerging roles for UDP-glucuronosyltransferases in drug resistance and cancer progression. Br J Cancer 2020; 122:1277-1287. [PMID: 32047295 PMCID: PMC7188667 DOI: 10.1038/s41416-019-0722-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2019] [Revised: 12/06/2019] [Accepted: 12/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The best-known role of UDP-glucuronosyltransferase enzymes (UGTs) in cancer is the metabolic inactivation of drug therapies. By conjugating glucuronic acid to lipophilic drugs, UGTs impair the biological activity and enhance the water solubility of these agents, driving their elimination. Multiple clinical observations support an expanding role for UGTs as modulators of the drug response and in mediating drug resistance in numerous cancer types. However, accumulating evidence also suggests an influence of the UGT pathway on cancer progression. Dysregulation of the expression and activity of UGTs has been associated with the progression of several cancers, arguing for UGTs as possible mediators of oncogenic pathways and/or disease accelerators in a drug-naive context. The consequences of altered UGT activity on tumour biology are incompletely understood. They might be associated with perturbed levels of bioactive endogenous metabolites such as steroids and bioactive lipids that are inactivated by UGTs or through non-enzymatic mechanisms, thereby eliciting oncogenic signalling cascades. This review highlights the evidence supporting dual roles for the UGT pathway, affecting cancer progression and drug resistance. Pharmacogenomic testing of UGT profiles in patients and the development of therapeutic options that impair UGT actions could provide useful prognostic and predictive biomarkers and enhance the efficacy of anti-cancer drugs.
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Liu Y, Badée J, Takahashi RH, Schmidt S, Parrott N, Fowler S, Mackenzie PI, Coughtrie MWH, Collier AC. Coexpression of Human Hepatic Uridine Diphosphate Glucuronosyltransferase Proteins: Implications for Ontogenetic Mechanisms and Isoform Coregulation. J Clin Pharmacol 2019; 60:722-733. [DOI: 10.1002/jcph.1571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2019] [Accepted: 12/02/2019] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yuejian Liu
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical SciencesThe University of British Columbia Vancouver British Columbia Canada
| | - Justine Badée
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research–Translational Medicine PK Sciences–Modeling & Simulation PBPK Novartis Campus Basel Switzerland
| | | | - Stephan Schmidt
- Center for Pharmacometrics & Systems PharmacologyDepartment of Pharmaceutics Lake Nona (Orlando)University of Florida Orlando Florida USA
| | - Neil Parrott
- Pharmaceutical SciencesRoche Pharma Research and Early DevelopmentRoche Innovation Centre Basel Basel Switzerland
| | - Stephen Fowler
- Pharmaceutical SciencesRoche Pharma Research and Early DevelopmentRoche Innovation Centre Basel Basel Switzerland
| | - Peter I. Mackenzie
- Department of Clinical PharmacologyFlinders University of South Australia Adelaide Australia
| | - Michael W. H. Coughtrie
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical SciencesThe University of British Columbia Vancouver British Columbia Canada
| | - Abby C. Collier
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical SciencesThe University of British Columbia Vancouver British Columbia Canada
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Wang P, Nie YL, Wang SJ, Yang LL, Yang WH, Li JF, Li XT, Zhang LR. Regulation of UGT1A expression by miR-298 in human livers from the Han Chinese population and in human cell lines. Epigenomics 2018; 10:43-57. [DOI: 10.2217/epi-2017-0068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Aim: This study aimed to investigate the role of miRNAs in UGT1A regulation. Materials & methods: Based on bioinformatic prediction results, luciferase reporter assay and cell-transfection experiments were performed to study effects of miR-298 on UGT1A expression. Correlation study was conducted in human livers. Results: miR-298 overexpression reduced mRNA level of UGT1A1 and UGT1A4 in HepG2 and LS174T cells, and that of UGT1A3 and UGT1A9 in LS174T cells. miR-298 repression increased mRNA level of UGT1A4 in HepG2 and LS174T cells, and that of UGT1A1 and UGT1A3 in LS174T cells. Inverse correlations between miR-298, as well as miR-491–3p, and UGT1A3 and 1A4 mRNA levels were observed in livers. Conclusion: The study demonstrates that miR-298 and miR-491–3p downregulates UGT1A expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pei Wang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medicine, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Ya-li Nie
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medicine, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Shu-jie Wang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Lin-lin Yang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medicine, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Wei-hong Yang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medicine, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Jiang-feng Li
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medicine, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Xiao-tian Li
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Li-rong Zhang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medicine, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
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Hu M, Wu B, Liu Z. Bioavailability of Polyphenols and Flavonoids in the Era of Precision Medicine. Mol Pharm 2017; 14:2861-2863. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.7b00545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ming Hu
- Department of Pharmacological
and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Houston, Houston, Texas 77030, United States
| | - Baojian Wu
- College of Pharmacy, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, P. R. China
| | - Zhongqiu Liu
- International Institute for
Translational Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou 510006, P. R. China
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Liu Y, Coughtrie MWH. Revisiting the Latency of Uridine Diphosphate-Glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs)-How Does the Endoplasmic Reticulum Membrane Influence Their Function? Pharmaceutics 2017; 9:E32. [PMID: 28867809 PMCID: PMC5620573 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics9030032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2017] [Revised: 08/26/2017] [Accepted: 08/28/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Uridine diphosphate-glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs) are phase 2 conjugation enzymes mainly located in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of the liver and many other tissues, and can be recovered in artificial ER membrane preparations (microsomes). They catalyze glucuronidation reactions in various aglycone substrates, contributing significantly to the body's chemical defense mechanism. There has been controversy over the last 50 years in the UGT field with respect to the explanation for the phenomenon of latency: full UGT activity revealed by chemical or physical disruption of the microsomal membrane. Because latency can lead to inaccurate measurements of UGT activity in vitro, and subsequent underprediction of drug clearance in vivo, it is important to understand the mechanisms behind this phenomenon. Three major hypotheses have been advanced to explain UGT latency: compartmentation, conformation, and adenine nucleotide inhibition. In this review, we discuss the evidence behind each hypothesis in depth, and suggest some additional studies that may reveal more information on this intriguing phenomenon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuejian Liu
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3, Canada.
| | - Michael W H Coughtrie
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3, Canada.
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Nene A, Chen CH, Disatnik MH, Cruz L, Mochly-Rosen D. Aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 activation and coevolution of its εPKC-mediated phosphorylation sites. J Biomed Sci 2017; 24:3. [PMID: 28056995 PMCID: PMC5217657 DOI: 10.1186/s12929-016-0312-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2016] [Accepted: 12/13/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Mitochondrial aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 (ALDH2) is a key enzyme for the metabolism of many toxic aldehydes such as acetaldehyde, derived from alcohol drinking, and 4HNE, an oxidative stress-derived lipid peroxidation aldehyde. Post-translational enhancement of ALDH2 activity can be achieved by serine/threonine phosphorylation by epsilon protein kinase C (εPKC). Elevated ALDH2 is beneficial in reducing injury following myocardial infarction, stroke and other oxidative stress and aldehyde toxicity-related diseases. We have previously identified three εPKC phosphorylation sites, threonine 185 (T185), serine 279 (S279) and threonine 412 (T412), on ALDH2. Here we further characterized the role and contribution of each phosphorylation site to the enhancement of enzymatic activity by εPKC. Methods Each individual phosphorylation site was mutated to a negatively charged amino acid, glutamate, to mimic a phosphorylation, or to a non-phosphorylatable amino acid, alanine. ALDH2 enzyme activities and protection against 4HNE inactivation were measured in the presence or absence of εPKC phosphorylation in vitro. Coevolution of ALDH2 and its εPKC phosphorylation sites was delineated by multiple sequence alignments among a diverse range of species and within the ALDH multigene family. Results We identified S279 as a critical εPKC phosphorylation site in the activation of ALDH2. The critical catalytic site, cysteine 302 (C302) of ALDH2 is susceptible to adduct formation by reactive aldehyde, 4HNE, which readily renders the enzyme inactive. We show that phosphomimetic mutations of T185E, S279E and T412E confer protection of ALDH2 against 4HNE-induced inactivation, indicating that phosphorylation on these three sites by εPKC likely also protects the enzyme against reactive aldehydes. Finally, we demonstrate that the three ALDH2 phosphorylation sites co-evolved with εPKC over a wide range of species. Alignment of 18 human ALDH isozymes, indicates that T185 and S279 are unique ALDH2, εPKC specific phosphorylation sites, while T412 is found in other ALDH isozymes. We further identified three highly conserved serine/threonine residues (T384, T433 and S471) in all 18 ALDH isozymes that may play an important phosphorylation-mediated regulatory role in this important family of detoxifying enzymes. Conclusion εPKC phosphorylation and its coevolution with ALDH2 play an important role in the regulation and protection of ALDH2 enzyme activity. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12929-016-0312-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aishwarya Nene
- Department of Chemical and Systems Biology, Stanford University, School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, 94305-5174, USA
| | - Che-Hong Chen
- Department of Chemical and Systems Biology, Stanford University, School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, 94305-5174, USA.
| | - Marie-Hélène Disatnik
- Department of Chemical and Systems Biology, Stanford University, School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, 94305-5174, USA
| | - Leslie Cruz
- Department of Chemical and Systems Biology, Stanford University, School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, 94305-5174, USA
| | - Daria Mochly-Rosen
- Department of Chemical and Systems Biology, Stanford University, School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, 94305-5174, USA
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Girard-Bock C, Benoit-Biancamano MO, Villeneuve L, Desjardins S, Guillemette C. A Rare UGT2B7 Variant Creates a Novel N-Glycosylation Site at Codon 121 with Impaired Enzyme Activity. Drug Metab Dispos 2016; 44:1867-1871. [DOI: 10.1124/dmd.116.071860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2016] [Accepted: 09/08/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
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Peng H, Yang T, Whitaker BD, Shangguan L, Fang J. Calcium/calmodulin alleviates substrate inhibition in a strawberry UDP-glucosyltransferase involved in fruit anthocyanin biosynthesis. BMC PLANT BIOLOGY 2016; 16:197. [PMID: 27609111 PMCID: PMC5017016 DOI: 10.1186/s12870-016-0888-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2016] [Accepted: 09/01/2016] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND UDP-glucosyltransferase (UGT) is a key enzyme for anthocyanin biosynthesis, which by catalyzing glycosylation of anthocyanidins increases their solubility and accumulation in plants. Previously we showed that pre-harvest spray of CaCl2 enhanced anthocyanin accumulation in strawberry fruit by stimulating the expression of anthocyanin structural genes including a fruit specific FvUGT1. RESULTS To further understand the regulation of anthocyanin biosynthesis, we conducted kinetic analysis of recombinant FvUGT1 on glycosylation of pelargonidin, the major anthocyanidin in strawberry fruit. At the fixed pelargonidin concentration, FvUGT1 catalyzed the sugar transfer from UDP-glucose basically following Michaelis-Menten kinetics. By contrast, at the fixed UDP-glucose concentration, pelargonidin over 150 μM exhibited marked partial substrate inhibition in an uncompetitive mode. These results suggest that the sugar acceptor at high concentration inhibits FvUGT1 activity by binding to another site in addition to the catalytic site. Furthermore, calcium/calmodulin specifically bound FvUGT1 at a site partially overlapping with the interdomain linker, and significantly relieved the substrate inhibition. In the presence of 0.1 and 0.5 μM calmodulin, V max was increased by 71.4 and 327 %, respectively. CONCLUSIONS FvUGT1 activity is inhibited by anthocyanidin, the sugar acceptor substrate, and calcium/calmodulin binding to FvUGT1 enhances anthocyanin accumulation via alleviation of this substrate inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Peng
- Agricultural Research Service of U.S. Department of Agriculture, From the Food Quality Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville, MD 20705 USA
- Horticulture & Landscape College, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, Hunan 410128 China
| | - Tianbao Yang
- Agricultural Research Service of U.S. Department of Agriculture, From the Food Quality Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville, MD 20705 USA
| | - Bruce D. Whitaker
- Agricultural Research Service of U.S. Department of Agriculture, From the Food Quality Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville, MD 20705 USA
| | - Lingfei Shangguan
- Agricultural Research Service of U.S. Department of Agriculture, From the Food Quality Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville, MD 20705 USA
- College of Horticulture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210095 China
| | - Jinggui Fang
- College of Horticulture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210095 China
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