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Srivastava P, Bansal R, Madan E, Shoaib R, Singhal J, Kahlon AK, Gupta A, Garg S, Ranganathan A, Singh S. Identification of a De Novo Peptide against Palmitoyl Acyltransferase 6 to Block Survivability and Infectivity of Leishmania donovani. ACS Infect Dis 2024; 10:2074-2088. [PMID: 38717971 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.4c00063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2024]
Abstract
Palmitoylation is an essential post-translational modification in Leishmania donovani, catalyzed by enzymes called palmitoyl acyl transferases (PATs) and has an essential role in virulence. Due to the toxicity and promiscuity of known PAT inhibitors, identification of new molecules is needed. Herein, we identified a specific novel de novo peptide inhibitor, PS1, against the PAT6 Leishmania donovani palmitoyl acyl transferase (LdPAT6). To demonstrate specific inhibition of LdPAT6 by PS1, we employed a bacterial orthologue system and metabolic labeling-coupled click chemistry where both LdPAT6 and PS1 were coexpressed and displayed palmitoylation suppression. Furthermore, strong binding of the LdPAT6-DHHC domain with PS1 was observed through analysis using microscale thermophoresis, ELISA, and dot blot assay. PS1 specific to LdPAT6 showed significant growth inhibition in promastigotes and amastigotes by expressing low cytokines levels and invasion. This study reveals discovery of a novel de novo peptide against LdPAT6-DHHC which has potential to block survivability and infectivity of L. donovani.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pallavi Srivastava
- Special Centre for Molecular Medicine, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110067, India
| | - Ruby Bansal
- Special Centre for Molecular Medicine, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110067, India
| | - Evanka Madan
- Special Centre for Molecular Medicine, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110067, India
| | - Rumaisha Shoaib
- Special Centre for Molecular Medicine, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110067, India
- Department of Biosciences, Jamia Millia Islamia University, New Delhi 110025, India
| | - Jhalak Singhal
- Special Centre for Molecular Medicine, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110067, India
| | - Amandeep Kaur Kahlon
- Special Centre for Molecular Medicine, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110067, India
| | - Aashima Gupta
- Special Centre for Molecular Medicine, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110067, India
| | - Swati Garg
- Special Centre for Molecular Medicine, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110067, India
| | - Anand Ranganathan
- Special Centre for Molecular Medicine, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110067, India
| | - Shailja Singh
- Special Centre for Molecular Medicine, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110067, India
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2
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Li M, Zhang L, Chen CW. Diverse Roles of Protein Palmitoylation in Cancer Progression, Immunity, Stemness, and Beyond. Cells 2023; 12:2209. [PMID: 37759431 PMCID: PMC10526800 DOI: 10.3390/cells12182209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2023] [Revised: 08/27/2023] [Accepted: 09/04/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Protein S-palmitoylation, a type of post-translational modification, refers to the reversible process of attachment of a fatty acyl chain-a 16-carbon palmitate acid-to the specific cysteine residues on target proteins. By adding the lipid chain to proteins, it increases the hydrophobicity of proteins and modulates protein stability, interaction with effector proteins, subcellular localization, and membrane trafficking. Palmitoylation is catalyzed by a group of zinc finger DHHC-containing proteins (ZDHHCs), whereas depalmitoylation is catalyzed by a family of acyl-protein thioesterases. Increasing numbers of oncoproteins and tumor suppressors have been identified to be palmitoylated, and palmitoylation is essential for their functions. Understanding how palmitoylation influences the function of individual proteins, the physiological roles of palmitoylation, and how dysregulated palmitoylation leads to pathological consequences are important drivers of current research in this research field. Further, due to the critical roles in modifying functions of oncoproteins and tumor suppressors, targeting palmitoylation has been used as a candidate therapeutic strategy for cancer treatment. Here, based on recent literatures, we discuss the progress of investigating roles of palmitoylation in regulating cancer progression, immune responses against cancer, and cancer stem cell properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingli Li
- Department of Systems Biology, Beckman Research Institute, City of Hope, Duarte, CA 91010, USA;
| | - Leisi Zhang
- Department of Systems Biology, Beckman Research Institute, City of Hope, Duarte, CA 91010, USA;
| | - Chun-Wei Chen
- Department of Systems Biology, Beckman Research Institute, City of Hope, Duarte, CA 91010, USA;
- City of Hope Comprehensive Cancer Center, Duarte, CA 91010, USA
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3
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Wang Y, Zhang S, He H, Luo H, Xia Y, Jiang Y, Jiang J, Sun L. Repositioning Lomitapide to block ZDHHC5-dependant palmitoylation on SSTR5 leads to anti-proliferation effect in preclinical pancreatic cancer models. Cell Death Discov 2023; 9:60. [PMID: 36774350 PMCID: PMC9922277 DOI: 10.1038/s41420-023-01359-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2022] [Revised: 01/27/2023] [Accepted: 02/01/2023] [Indexed: 02/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Palmitoylation of proteins plays important roles in various physiological processes, such as cell proliferation, inflammation, cell differentiation etc. However, inhibition of protein palmitoylation has led to few new drugs to date. ZDHHC5 serves as a key enzyme to catalyze palmitoylation on SSTR5 (a proven anti-proliferation receptor in pancreatic cells). Herein, we compare single-cell transcriptome data between pancreatic cancer tissues and normal pancreas tissues and identify that ZDHHC5 is a potential target to inhibit proliferation of pancreatic cancer cells. In addition, we report the repositioning of an orphan drug (Lomitapide) as an inhibitor of ZDHHC5, and we speculate that this inhibitor may be able to block palmitylation on SSTR5. Pharmacological blockade of ZDHHC5 with Lomitapide results in attenuated cancer cell growth and proliferation which collectively contributes to antitumor responses in vitro and in vivo. This is the first study, to our knowledge, to demonstrate the utility of a pharmacological inhibitor of ZDHHC5 in pancreatic cancer, representing a new class of palmitoylation targeted therapy and laying a framework for paradigm-shifting therapies targeting cancer cell palmitoylation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yumeng Wang
- grid.254147.10000 0000 9776 7793Jiangsu key lab of Drug Screening, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 210009 China
| | - Shujie Zhang
- grid.254147.10000 0000 9776 7793Jiangsu key lab of Drug Screening, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 210009 China
| | - Huiqin He
- grid.254147.10000 0000 9776 7793Jiangsu key lab of Drug Screening, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 210009 China
| | - Hongyi Luo
- grid.254147.10000 0000 9776 7793Jiangsu key lab of Drug Screening, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 210009 China
| | - Yannan Xia
- grid.254147.10000 0000 9776 7793Jiangsu key lab of Drug Screening, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 210009 China
| | - Yuanyuan Jiang
- grid.254147.10000 0000 9776 7793Jiangsu key lab of Drug Screening, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 210009 China
| | - Jingwei Jiang
- Jiangsu key lab of Drug Screening, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 210009, China. .,Shuangyun BioMed Sci & Tech (Suzhou) Co., Ltd, Suzhou, 215028, China.
| | - Li Sun
- Jiangsu key lab of Drug Screening, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 210009, China.
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4
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ZDHHC16 restrains osteogenic differentiation of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells by inhibiting phosphorylation of CREB. Heliyon 2023; 9:e12788. [PMID: 36685387 PMCID: PMC9852670 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e12788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2022] [Revised: 12/22/2022] [Accepted: 12/30/2022] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Aims The osteogenesis of human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (hBMSCs) plays a critical role in fracture healing. Osteogenic differentiation is regulated by a variety of post-translational modifications, but the function of protein palmitoylation in osteogenesis remains largely unknown. Methods Osteogenic differentiation induction of hBMSCs was used in this study. RT‒qPCR and immunoblotting assays (WB) were used to test marker genes of osteogenic induction. Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity, ALP staining and Alizarin red staining were performed to evaluate osteogenesis of hBMSCs. Signal finder pathway reporter array, co-immunoprecipitation and WB were applied to elucidate the molecular mechanism. A mouse fracture model was used to verify the in vivo function of the ZDHHC inhibitor. Key findings We revealed that palmitic acid inhibited Runx2 mRNA expression in hBMSCs and identified ZDHHC16 as a potential target palmitoyl acyltransferase. In addition, ZDHHC16 decreased during osteogenic induction. Next, we confirmed the inhibitory function of ZDHHC16 by its knockdown or overexpression during osteogenesis of hBMSCs. Moreover, we illustrated that ZDHHC16 inhibited the phosphorylation of CREB, thus inhibiting osteogenesis of hBMSCs by enhancing the palmitoylation of CREB. With a mouse femur fracture model, we found that 2-BP, a general inhibitor of ZDHHCs, promoted fracture healing in vivo. Thus, we clarified the inhibitory function of ZDHHC16 during osteogenic differentiation. Significance Collectively, these findings highlight the inhibitory function of ZDHHC16 in osteogenesis as a potential therapy method for fracture healing.
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Luo J, Chen L, Huang X, Xie J, Zou C, Pan M, Mo J, Zou D. REPS1 as a Potential Biomarker in Alzheimer’s Disease and Vascular Dementia. Front Aging Neurosci 2022; 14:894824. [PMID: 35813961 PMCID: PMC9257827 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2022.894824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2022] [Accepted: 06/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Vascular dementia (VD) and Alzheimer’s disease (AD) are common types of dementia for which no curative therapies are known. In this study, we identified hub genes associated with AD and VD in order to explore new potential therapeutic targets. Genes differentially expressed in VD and AD in all three datasets (GSE122063, GSE132903, and GSE5281) were identified and used to construct a protein–protein interaction network. We identified 10 modules containing 427 module genes in AD and VD. Module genes showing an area under the diagnostic curve > 0.60 for AD or VD were used to construct a least absolute shrinkage and selection operator model and were entered into a support vector machine-recursive feature elimination algorithm, which identified REPS1 as a hub gene in AD and VD. Furthermore, REPS1 was associated with activation of pyruvate metabolism and inhibition of Ras signaling pathway. Module genes, together with differentially expressed microRNAs from the dataset GSE46579, were used to construct a regulatory network. REPS1 was predicted to bind to the microRNA hsa_miR_5701. Single-sample gene set enrichment analysis was used to explore immune cell infiltration, which suggested a negative correlation between REPS1 expression and infiltration by plasmacytoid dendritic cells in AD and VD. In conclusion, our results suggest core pathways involved in both AD and VD, and they identify REPS1 as a potential biomarker of both diseases. This protein may aid in early diagnosis, monitoring of treatment response, and even efforts to prevent these debilitating disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiefeng Luo
- Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, China
| | - Liechun Chen
- Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, China
| | - Xiaohua Huang
- Department of Neurology, The Affiliated Hospital of Youjiang Medical University for Nationalities, Baise, China
| | - Jieqiong Xie
- Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, China
| | - Chun Zou
- Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, China
| | - Mika Pan
- Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, China
| | - Jingjia Mo
- Department of General Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, China
- Jingjia Mo,
| | - Donghua Zou
- Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, China
- *Correspondence: Donghua Zou,
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6
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Ramadan AA, Mayilsamy K, McGill AR, Ghosh A, Giulianotti MA, Donow HM, Mohapatra SS, Mohapatra S, Chandran B, Deschenes RJ, Roy A. Identification of SARS-CoV-2 Spike Palmitoylation Inhibitors That Results in Release of Attenuated Virus with Reduced Infectivity. Viruses 2022; 14:v14030531. [PMID: 35336938 PMCID: PMC8950683 DOI: 10.3390/v14030531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2022] [Revised: 02/25/2022] [Accepted: 03/02/2022] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The spike proteins of enveloped viruses are transmembrane glycoproteins that typically undergo post-translational attachment of palmitate on cysteine residues on the cytoplasmic facing tail of the protein. The role of spike protein palmitoylation in virus biogenesis and infectivity is being actively studied as a potential target of novel antivirals. Here, we report that palmitoylation of the first five cysteine residues of the C-terminal cysteine-rich domain of the SARS-CoV-2 S protein are indispensable for infection, and palmitoylation-deficient spike mutants are defective in membrane fusion. The DHHC9 palmitoyltransferase interacts with and palmitoylates the spike protein in the ER and Golgi and knockdown of DHHC9 results in reduced fusion and infection of SARS-CoV-2. Two bis-piperazine backbone-based DHHC9 inhibitors inhibit SARS-CoV-2 S protein palmitoylation and the resulting progeny virion particles released are defective in fusion and infection. This establishes these palmitoyltransferase inhibitors as potential new intervention strategies against SARS-CoV-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed A. Ramadan
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33612, USA; (A.A.R.); (K.M.); (A.R.M.); (A.G.); (S.S.M.); (S.M.); (B.C.)
| | - Karthick Mayilsamy
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33612, USA; (A.A.R.); (K.M.); (A.R.M.); (A.G.); (S.S.M.); (S.M.); (B.C.)
- Department of Veterans Affairs, James A Haley Veterans Hospital, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
| | - Andrew R. McGill
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33612, USA; (A.A.R.); (K.M.); (A.R.M.); (A.G.); (S.S.M.); (S.M.); (B.C.)
- Department of Veterans Affairs, James A Haley Veterans Hospital, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
| | - Anandita Ghosh
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33612, USA; (A.A.R.); (K.M.); (A.R.M.); (A.G.); (S.S.M.); (S.M.); (B.C.)
| | - Marc A. Giulianotti
- Center for Translational Science, Florida International University, Port St. Lucie, FL 34987, USA; (M.A.G.); (H.M.D.)
| | - Haley M. Donow
- Center for Translational Science, Florida International University, Port St. Lucie, FL 34987, USA; (M.A.G.); (H.M.D.)
| | - Shyam S. Mohapatra
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33612, USA; (A.A.R.); (K.M.); (A.R.M.); (A.G.); (S.S.M.); (S.M.); (B.C.)
- Department of Veterans Affairs, James A Haley Veterans Hospital, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
| | - Subhra Mohapatra
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33612, USA; (A.A.R.); (K.M.); (A.R.M.); (A.G.); (S.S.M.); (S.M.); (B.C.)
- Department of Veterans Affairs, James A Haley Veterans Hospital, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
| | - Bala Chandran
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33612, USA; (A.A.R.); (K.M.); (A.R.M.); (A.G.); (S.S.M.); (S.M.); (B.C.)
| | - Robert J. Deschenes
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33612, USA; (A.A.R.); (K.M.); (A.R.M.); (A.G.); (S.S.M.); (S.M.); (B.C.)
- Correspondence: (R.J.D.); (A.R.); Tel.: +1-(813)-974-6393 (R.J.D.); +1-(813)-974-5540 (A.R.)
| | - Arunava Roy
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33612, USA; (A.A.R.); (K.M.); (A.R.M.); (A.G.); (S.S.M.); (S.M.); (B.C.)
- Correspondence: (R.J.D.); (A.R.); Tel.: +1-(813)-974-6393 (R.J.D.); +1-(813)-974-5540 (A.R.)
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Protein Lipidation Types: Current Strategies for Enrichment and Characterization. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23042365. [PMID: 35216483 PMCID: PMC8880637 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23042365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2022] [Revised: 02/18/2022] [Accepted: 02/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Post-translational modifications regulate diverse activities of a colossal number of proteins. For example, various types of lipids can be covalently linked to proteins enzymatically or non-enzymatically. Protein lipidation is perhaps not as extensively studied as protein phosphorylation, ubiquitination, or glycosylation although it is no less significant than these modifications. Evidence suggests that proteins can be attached by at least seven types of lipids, including fatty acids, lipoic acids, isoprenoids, sterols, phospholipids, glycosylphosphatidylinositol anchors, and lipid-derived electrophiles. In this review, we summarize types of protein lipidation and methods used for their detection, with an emphasis on the conjugation of proteins with polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). We discuss possible reasons for the scarcity of reports on PUFA-modified proteins, limitations in current methodology, and potential approaches in detecting PUFA modifications.
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8
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Li X, Shen L, Xu Z, Liu W, Li A, Xu J. Protein Palmitoylation Modification During Viral Infection and Detection Methods of Palmitoylated Proteins. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:821596. [PMID: 35155279 PMCID: PMC8829041 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.821596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2021] [Accepted: 01/12/2022] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Protein palmitoylation—a lipid modification in which one or more cysteine thiols on a substrate protein are modified to form a thioester with a palmitoyl group—is a significant post-translational biological process. This process regulates the trafficking, subcellular localization, and stability of different proteins in cells. Since palmitoylation participates in various biological processes, it is related to the occurrence and development of multiple diseases. It has been well evidenced that the proteins whose functions are palmitoylation-dependent or directly involved in key proteins’ palmitoylation/depalmitoylation cycle may be a potential source of novel therapeutic drugs for the related diseases. Many researchers have reported palmitoylation of proteins, which are crucial for host-virus interactions during viral infection. Quite a few explorations have focused on figuring out whether targeting the acylation of viral or host proteins might be a strategy to combat viral diseases. All these remarkable achievements in protein palmitoylation have been made to technological advances. This paper gives an overview of protein palmitoylation modification during viral infection and the methods for palmitoylated protein detection. Future challenges and potential developments are proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoling Li
- College of Life Sciences, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Lingyi Shen
- College of Life Sciences, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Zhao Xu
- College of Life Sciences, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Wei Liu
- College of Life Sciences, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Aihua Li
- Clinical Lab, Henan Provincial Chest Hospital, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Jun Xu
- College of Life Sciences, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China
- *Correspondence: Jun Xu, ;
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Hayashi T. Evolutionarily Established Palmitoylation-Dependent Regulatory Mechanisms of the Vertebrate Glutamatergic Synapse and Diseases Caused by Their Disruption. Front Mol Neurosci 2021; 14:796912. [PMID: 34867194 PMCID: PMC8634674 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2021.796912] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2021] [Accepted: 10/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Glutamate is the major excitatory neurotransmitter in the vertebrate brain and various modifications have been established in the glutamatergic synapses. Generally, many neuronal receptors and ion channels are regulated by S-palmitoylation, a reversible post-translational protein modification. Genome sequence databases show the evolutionary acquisition and conservation concerning vertebrate-specific palmitoylation of synaptic proteins including glutamate receptors. Moreover, palmitoylation of some glutamate receptor-binding proteins is subsequently acquired only in some mammalian lineages. Recent progress in genome studies has revealed that some palmitoylation-catalyzing enzymes are the causative genes of neuropsychiatric disorders. In this review, I will summarize the evolutionary development of palmitoylation-dependent regulation of glutamatergic synapses and their dysfunctions which are caused by the disruption of palmitoylation mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takashi Hayashi
- Biomedical Research Institute, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Tsukuba, Japan
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10
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Hu L, Tao Z, Wu X. Insights into auto- S-fatty acylation: targets, druggability, and inhibitors. RSC Chem Biol 2021; 2:1567-1579. [PMID: 34977571 PMCID: PMC8637764 DOI: 10.1039/d1cb00115a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2021] [Accepted: 08/22/2021] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Posttranslational S-fatty acylation (or S-palmitoylation) modulates protein localization and functions, and has been implicated in neurological, metabolic, and infectious diseases, and cancers. Auto-S-fatty acylation involves reactive cysteine residues in the proteins which directly react with fatty acyl-CoA through thioester transfer reactions, and is the first step in some palmitoyl acyltransferase (PAT)-mediated catalysis reactions. In addition, many structural proteins, transcription factors and adaptor proteins might possess such "enzyme-like" activities and undergo auto-S-fatty acylation upon fatty acyl-CoA binding. Auto-S-fatty acylated proteins represent a new class of potential drug targets, which often harbor lipid-binding hydrophobic pockets and reactive cysteine residues, providing potential binding sites for covalent and non-covalent modulators. Therefore, targeting auto-S-fatty acylation could be a promising avenue to pharmacologically intervene in important cellular signaling pathways. Here, we summarize the recent progress in understanding the regulation and functions of auto-S-fatty acylation in cell signaling and diseases. We highlight the druggability of auto-S-fatty acylated proteins, including PATs and other proteins, with potential in silico and rationalized drug design approaches. We also highlight structural analysis and examples of currently known small molecules targeting auto-S-fatty acylation, to gain insights into targeting this class of proteins, and to expand the "druggable" proteome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu Hu
- Cutaneous Biology Research Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School 149, 13th St. Charlestown MA 02129 USA
| | - Zhipeng Tao
- Cutaneous Biology Research Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School 149, 13th St. Charlestown MA 02129 USA
| | - Xu Wu
- Cutaneous Biology Research Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School 149, 13th St. Charlestown MA 02129 USA
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11
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Colón-Bolea P, García-Gómez R, Casar B. RAC1 Activation as a Potential Therapeutic Option in Metastatic Cutaneous Melanoma. Biomolecules 2021; 11:1554. [PMID: 34827551 PMCID: PMC8615836 DOI: 10.3390/biom11111554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2021] [Revised: 10/14/2021] [Accepted: 10/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Metastasis is a complex process by which cancer cells escape from the primary tumor to colonize distant organs. RAC1 is a member of the RHO family of small guanosine triphosphatases that plays an important role in cancer migration, invasion, angiogenesis and metastasis. RAC1 activation has been related to most cancers, such as cutaneous melanoma, breast, lung, and pancreatic cancer. RAC1P29S driver mutation appears in a significant number of cutaneous melanoma cases. Likewise, RAC1 is overexpressed or hyperactivated via signaling through oncogenic cell surface receptors. Thus, targeting RAC1 represents a promising strategy for cutaneous melanoma therapy, as well as for inhibition of other signaling activation that promotes resistance to targeted therapies. In this review, we focus on the role of RAC1 in metastatic cutaneous melanoma emphasizing the anti-metastatic potential of RAC1- targeting drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paula Colón-Bolea
- Instituto de Biomedicina y Biotecnología de Cantabria, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas—Universidad de Cantabria, 39011 Santander, Spain; (P.C.-B.); (R.G.-G.)
| | - Rocío García-Gómez
- Instituto de Biomedicina y Biotecnología de Cantabria, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas—Universidad de Cantabria, 39011 Santander, Spain; (P.C.-B.); (R.G.-G.)
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Cáncer (CIBERONC), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Berta Casar
- Instituto de Biomedicina y Biotecnología de Cantabria, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas—Universidad de Cantabria, 39011 Santander, Spain; (P.C.-B.); (R.G.-G.)
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Cáncer (CIBERONC), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain
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12
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Lemarié FL, Caron NS, Sanders SS, Schmidt ME, Nguyen YTN, Ko S, Xu X, Pouladi MA, Martin DDO, Hayden MR. Rescue of aberrant huntingtin palmitoylation ameliorates mutant huntingtin-induced toxicity. Neurobiol Dis 2021; 158:105479. [PMID: 34390831 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2021.105479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2021] [Revised: 07/29/2021] [Accepted: 08/09/2021] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Huntington disease (HD) is a neurodegenerative disorder caused by a CAG expansion in the HTT gene that codes for an elongated polyglutamine tract in the huntingtin (HTT) protein. HTT is subject to multiple post-translational modifications (PTMs) that regulate its cellular function. Mutating specific PTM sites within mutant HTT (mHTT) in HD mouse models can modulate disease phenotypes, highlighting the key role of HTT PTMs in the pathogenesis of HD. These findings have led to increased interest in developing small molecules to modulate HTT PTMs in order to decrease mHTT toxicity. However, the therapeutic efficacy of pharmacological modulation of HTT PTMs in preclinical HD models remains largely unknown. HTT is palmitoylated at cysteine 214 by the huntingtin-interacting protein 14 (HIP14 or ZDHHC17) and 14-like (HIP14L or ZDHHC13) acyltransferases. Here, we assessed if HTT palmitoylation should be regarded as a therapeutic target to treat HD by (1) investigating palmitoylation dysregulation in rodent and human HD model systems, (2) measuring the impact of mHTT-lowering therapy on brain palmitoylation, and (3) evaluating if HTT palmitoylation can be pharmacologically modulated. We show that palmitoylation of mHTT and some HIP14/HIP14L-substrates is decreased early in multiple HD mouse models, and that mHTT palmitoylation decreases further with aging. Lowering mHTT in the brain of YAC128 mice is not sufficient to rescue aberrant palmitoylation. However, we demonstrate that mHTT palmitoylation can be normalized in COS-7 cells, in YAC128 cortico-striatal primary neurons and HD patient-derived lymphoblasts using an acyl-protein thioesterase (APT) inhibitor. Moreover, we show that modulating palmitoylation reduces mHTT aggregation and mHTT-induced cytotoxicity in COS-7 cells and YAC128 neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fanny L Lemarié
- Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics, BC Children's Hospital Research Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Nicholas S Caron
- Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics, BC Children's Hospital Research Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Shaun S Sanders
- Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics, BC Children's Hospital Research Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada; Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada
| | - Mandi E Schmidt
- Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics, BC Children's Hospital Research Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Yen T N Nguyen
- Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics, BC Children's Hospital Research Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Seunghyun Ko
- Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics, BC Children's Hospital Research Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Xiaohong Xu
- Department of Neurology and Stroke Center, The First Affiliated Hospital, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China; Translational Laboratory in Genetic Medicine, Department of Physiology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Mahmoud A Pouladi
- Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics, BC Children's Hospital Research Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada; Translational Laboratory in Genetic Medicine, Department of Physiology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Dale D O Martin
- Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics, BC Children's Hospital Research Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada; Department of Biology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Canada
| | - Michael R Hayden
- Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics, BC Children's Hospital Research Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada.
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Abdulrahman DA, Meng X, Veit M. S-Acylation of Proteins of Coronavirus and Influenza Virus: Conservation of Acylation Sites in Animal Viruses and DHHC Acyltransferases in Their Animal Reservoirs. Pathogens 2021; 10:669. [PMID: 34072434 PMCID: PMC8227752 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10060669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2021] [Revised: 05/17/2021] [Accepted: 05/25/2021] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent pandemics of zoonotic origin were caused by members of coronavirus (CoV) and influenza A (Flu A) viruses. Their glycoproteins (S in CoV, HA in Flu A) and ion channels (E in CoV, M2 in Flu A) are S-acylated. We show that viruses of all genera and from all hosts contain clusters of acylated cysteines in HA, S and E, consistent with the essential function of the modification. In contrast, some Flu viruses lost the acylated cysteine in M2 during evolution, suggesting that it does not affect viral fitness. Members of the DHHC family catalyze palmitoylation. Twenty-three DHHCs exist in humans, but the number varies between vertebrates. SARS-CoV-2 and Flu A proteins are acylated by an overlapping set of DHHCs in human cells. We show that these DHHC genes also exist in other virus hosts. Localization of amino acid substitutions in the 3D structure of DHHCs provided no evidence that their activity or substrate specificity is disturbed. We speculate that newly emerged CoVs or Flu viruses also depend on S-acylation for replication and will use the human DHHCs for that purpose. This feature makes these DHHCs attractive targets for pan-antiviral drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dina A. Abdulrahman
- Department of Virology, Animal Health Research Institute (AHRI), Giza 12618, Egypt;
| | - Xiaorong Meng
- Institute of Virology, Veterinary Faculty, Free University Berlin, 14163 Berlin, Germany;
| | - Michael Veit
- Institute of Virology, Veterinary Faculty, Free University Berlin, 14163 Berlin, Germany;
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14
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Chen JJ, Fan Y, Boehning D. Regulation of Dynamic Protein S-Acylation. Front Mol Biosci 2021; 8:656440. [PMID: 33981723 PMCID: PMC8107437 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2021.656440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2021] [Accepted: 02/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Protein S-acylation is the reversible addition of fatty acids to the cysteine residues of target proteins. It regulates multiple aspects of protein function, including the localization to membranes, intracellular trafficking, protein interactions, protein stability, and protein conformation. This process is regulated by palmitoyl acyltransferases that have the conserved amino acid sequence DHHC at their active site. Although they have conserved catalytic cores, DHHC enzymes vary in their protein substrate selection, lipid substrate preference, and regulatory mechanisms. Alterations in DHHC enzyme function are associated with many human diseases, including cancers and neurological conditions. The removal of fatty acids from acylated cysteine residues is catalyzed by acyl protein thioesterases. Notably, S-acylation is now known to be a highly dynamic process, and plays crucial roles in signaling transduction in various cell types. In this review, we will explore the recent findings on protein S-acylation, the enzymatic regulation of this process, and discuss examples of dynamic S-acylation.
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15
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Zacharias AO, Fang Z, Rahman A, Talukder A, Cornelius S, Chowdhury SM. Affinity and chemical enrichment strategies for mapping low‐abundance protein modifications and protein‐interaction networks. J Sep Sci 2020; 44:310-322. [DOI: 10.1002/jssc.202000930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2020] [Revised: 11/24/2020] [Accepted: 11/26/2020] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Adway O. Zacharias
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry University of Texas at Arlington Arlington Texas USA
| | - Zixiang Fang
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry University of Texas at Arlington Arlington Texas USA
| | - Aurchie Rahman
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry University of Texas at Arlington Arlington Texas USA
| | - Akash Talukder
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry University of Texas at Arlington Arlington Texas USA
| | - Sharel Cornelius
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry University of Texas at Arlington Arlington Texas USA
| | - Saiful M. Chowdhury
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry University of Texas at Arlington Arlington Texas USA
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16
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Rey E, Meléndez‐Rodríguez F, Marañón P, Gil‐Valle M, Carrasco AG, Torres‐Capelli M, Chávez S, del Pozo‐Maroto E, Rodríguez de Cía J, Aragonés J, García‐Monzón C, González‐Rodríguez Á. Hypoxia-inducible factor 2α drives hepatosteatosis through the fatty acid translocase CD36. Liver Int 2020; 40:2553-2567. [PMID: 32432822 PMCID: PMC7539965 DOI: 10.1111/liv.14519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2019] [Revised: 05/11/2020] [Accepted: 05/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS Molecular mechanisms by which hypoxia might contribute to hepatosteatosis, the earliest stage in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) pathogenesis, remain still to be elucidated. We aimed to assess the impact of hypoxia-inducible factor 2α (HIF2α) on the fatty acid translocase CD36 expression and function in vivo and in vitro. METHODS CD36 expression and intracellular lipid content were determined in hypoxic hepatocytes, and in hypoxic CD36- or HIF2α -silenced human liver cells. Histological analysis, and HIF2α and CD36 expression were evaluated in livers from animals in which von Hippel-Lindau (Vhl) gene is inactivated (Vhlf/f -deficient mice), or both Vhl and Hif2a are simultaneously inactivated (Vhlf/f Hif2α/f -deficient mice), and from 33 biopsy-proven NAFLD patients and 18 subjects with histologically normal liver. RESULTS In hypoxic hepatocytes, CD36 expression and intracellular lipid content were augmented. Noteworthy, CD36 knockdown significantly reduced lipid accumulation, and HIF2A gene silencing markedly reverted both hypoxia-induced events in hypoxic liver cells. Moreover livers from Vhlf/f -deficient mice showed histologic characteristics of non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) and increased CD36 mRNA and protein amounts, whereas both significantly decreased and NASH features markedly ameliorated in Vhlf/f Hif2αf/f -deficient mice. In addition, both HIF2α and CD36 were significantly overexpressed within the liver of NAFLD patients and, interestingly, a significant positive correlation between hepatic transcript levels of CD36 and erythropoietin (EPO), a HIF2α -dependent gene target, was observed in NAFLD patients. CONCLUSIONS This study provides evidence that HIF2α drives lipid accumulation in human hepatocytes by upregulating CD36 expression and function, and could contribute to hepatosteatosis setup.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esther Rey
- Unidad de InvestigaciónHospital Universitario Santa CristinaInstituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Hospital Universitario de La PrincesaMadridSpain
| | - Florinda Meléndez‐Rodríguez
- Unidad de InvestigaciónHospital Universitario Santa CristinaInstituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Hospital Universitario de La PrincesaUniversidad Autónoma de MadridMadridSpain,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Cardiovasculares (CIBERCV)MadridSpain
| | - Patricia Marañón
- Unidad de InvestigaciónHospital Universitario Santa CristinaInstituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Hospital Universitario de La PrincesaMadridSpain
| | - Miriam Gil‐Valle
- Unidad de InvestigaciónHospital Universitario Santa CristinaInstituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Hospital Universitario de La PrincesaMadridSpain
| | - Almudena G. Carrasco
- Unidad de InvestigaciónHospital Universitario Santa CristinaInstituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Hospital Universitario de La PrincesaMadridSpain,Present address:
Dpto. Ciencias Básicas de la SaludUniversidad Rey Juan CarlosAlcorcónSpain
| | - Mar Torres‐Capelli
- Unidad de InvestigaciónHospital Universitario Santa CristinaInstituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Hospital Universitario de La PrincesaUniversidad Autónoma de MadridMadridSpain
| | - Stephania Chávez
- Unidad de InvestigaciónHospital Universitario Santa CristinaInstituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Hospital Universitario de La PrincesaMadridSpain
| | - Elvira del Pozo‐Maroto
- Unidad de InvestigaciónHospital Universitario Santa CristinaInstituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Hospital Universitario de La PrincesaMadridSpain,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBEREHD)MadridSpain
| | - Javier Rodríguez de Cía
- Unidad de InvestigaciónHospital Universitario Santa CristinaInstituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Hospital Universitario de La PrincesaMadridSpain,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBEREHD)MadridSpain
| | - Julián Aragonés
- Unidad de InvestigaciónHospital Universitario Santa CristinaInstituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Hospital Universitario de La PrincesaUniversidad Autónoma de MadridMadridSpain,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Cardiovasculares (CIBERCV)MadridSpain
| | - Carmelo García‐Monzón
- Unidad de InvestigaciónHospital Universitario Santa CristinaInstituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Hospital Universitario de La PrincesaMadridSpain,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBEREHD)MadridSpain
| | - Águeda González‐Rodríguez
- Unidad de InvestigaciónHospital Universitario Santa CristinaInstituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Hospital Universitario de La PrincesaMadridSpain,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBEREHD)MadridSpain
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17
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Ticho AL, Malhotra P, Manzella CR, Dudeja PK, Saksena S, Gill RK, Alrefai WA. S-acylation modulates the function of the apical sodium-dependent bile acid transporter in human cells. J Biol Chem 2020; 295:4488-4497. [PMID: 32071081 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra119.011032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2019] [Revised: 02/06/2020] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
The ileal apical sodium-dependent bile acid transporter (ASBT) is crucial for the enterohepatic circulation of bile acids. ASBT function is rapidly regulated by several posttranslational modifications. One reversible posttranslational modification is S-acylation, involving the covalent attachment of fatty acids to cysteine residues in proteins. However, whether S-acylation affects ASBT function and membrane expression has not been determined. Using the acyl resin-assisted capture method, we found that the majority of ASBT (∼80%) was S-acylated in ileal brush border membrane vesicles from human organ donors, as well as in HEK293 cells stably transfected with ASBT (2BT cells). Metabolic labeling with alkyne-palmitic acid (100 μm for 15 h) also showed that ASBT is S-acylated in 2BT cells. Incubation with the acyltransferase inhibitor 2-bromopalmitate (25 μm for 15 h) significantly reduced ASBT S-acylation, function, and levels on the plasma membrane. Treatment of 2BT cells with saturated palmitic acid (100 μm for 15 h) increased ASBT function, whereas treatment with unsaturated oleic acid significantly reduced ASBT function. Metabolic labeling with alkyne-oleic acid (100 μm for 15 h) revealed that oleic acid attaches to ASBT, suggesting that unsaturated fatty acids may decrease ASBT's function via a direct covalent interaction with ASBT. We also identified Cys-314 as a potential S-acylation site. In conclusion, these results provide evidence that S-acylation is involved in the modulation of ASBT function. These findings underscore the potential for unsaturated fatty acids to reduce ASBT function, which may be useful in disorders in which bile acid toxicity is implicated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander L Ticho
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Illinois 60612-7332
| | - Pooja Malhotra
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Medicine, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Illinois 60612-7332
| | - Christopher R Manzella
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Illinois 60612-7332
| | - Pradeep K Dudeja
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Medicine, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Illinois 60612-7332.,Jesse Brown Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois 60612
| | - Seema Saksena
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Medicine, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Illinois 60612-7332.,Jesse Brown Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois 60612
| | - Ravinder K Gill
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Medicine, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Illinois 60612-7332
| | - Waddah A Alrefai
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Medicine, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Illinois 60612-7332 .,Jesse Brown Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois 60612
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18
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Therapeutic targeting of protein S-acylation for the treatment of disease. Biochem Soc Trans 2019; 48:281-290. [DOI: 10.1042/bst20190707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2019] [Revised: 12/04/2019] [Accepted: 12/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The post-translational modification protein S-acylation (commonly known as palmitoylation) plays a critical role in regulating a wide range of biological processes including cell growth, cardiac contractility, synaptic plasticity, endocytosis, vesicle trafficking, membrane transport and biased-receptor signalling. As a consequence, zDHHC-protein acyl transferases (zDHHC-PATs), enzymes that catalyse the addition of fatty acid groups to specific cysteine residues on target proteins, and acyl proteins thioesterases, proteins that hydrolyse thioester linkages, are important pharmaceutical targets. At present, no therapeutic drugs have been developed that act by changing the palmitoylation status of specific target proteins. Here, we consider the role that palmitoylation plays in the development of diseases such as cancer and detail possible strategies for selectively manipulating the palmitoylation status of specific target proteins, a necessary first step towards developing clinically useful molecules for the treatment of disease.
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19
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Gadalla MR, Veit M. Toward the identification of ZDHHC enzymes required for palmitoylation of viral protein as potential drug targets. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2019; 15:159-177. [PMID: 31809605 DOI: 10.1080/17460441.2020.1696306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Introduction: S-acylation is the attachment of fatty acids not only to cysteines of cellular, but also of viral proteins. The modification is often crucial for the protein´s function and hence for virus replication. Transfer of fatty acids is mediated by one or several of the 23 members of the ZDHHC family of proteins. Since their genes are linked to various human diseases, they represent drug targets.Areas covered: The authors explore whether targeting acylation of viral proteins might be a strategy to combat viral diseases. Many human pathogens contain S-acylated proteins; the ZDHHCs involved in their acylation are currently identified. Based on the 3D structure of two ZDHHCs, the regulation and the biochemistry of the palmitolyation reaction and the lipid and protein substrate specificities are discussed. The authors then speculate how ZDHHCs might recognize S-acylated membrane proteins of Influenza virus.Expert opinion: Although many viral diseases can now be treated, the available drugs bind to viral proteins that rapidly mutate and become resistant. To develop inhibitors for the genetically more stable cellular ZDHHCs, their binding sites for viral substrates need to be identified. If only a few cellular proteins are recognized by the same binding site, development of specific inhibitors may have therapeutic potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed Rasheed Gadalla
- Institute of Virology, Free University Berlin, Berlin, Germany.,Department of Virology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt
| | - Michael Veit
- Institute of Virology, Free University Berlin, Berlin, Germany
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20
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Xu T, Huang C, Qi XT, Yang XC, Zhang N, Cao J, Wang C, Zhu H, Yang B, He QJ, Shao XJ, Ying MD. 2-Bromopalmitate sensitizes osteosarcoma cells to adriamycin-induced apoptosis via the modulation of CHOP. Eur J Pharmacol 2018; 844:204-215. [PMID: 30552901 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2018.12.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2018] [Revised: 12/11/2018] [Accepted: 12/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Osteosarcoma is the most common primary malignant bone tumour, but the survival rate of patients has plateaued since the mid-1980s. Adriamycin is an integral component of the current first-line chemotherapies used for osteosarcoma, but dose-dependent severe side effects often limit its clinical application. Here, we propose a potential combination regimen in which adriamycin plus 2-bromopalmitate, a palmitoylation inhibitor, exhibited powerful therapeutic effects on osteosarcoma. First, 2-bromopalmitate strongly increased the proliferation inhibition of adriamycin in both human osteosarcoma cell lines and primary osteosarcoma cells. Adriamycin-induced apoptosis in osteosarcoma cells was enhanced when synergized with 2-bromopalmitate. Our study indicated that the reactive oxygen species scavenger NAC and GSH could largely reverse the apoptosis induced by adriamycin combined with 2-bromopalmitate, demonstrating that reactive oxygen species played an essential role in this combination therapy. Moreover, CHOP was remarkably elevated in the combination group, and silencing of CHOP almost completely blocked the apoptosis induced by the combination of 2-bromopalmitate and adriamycin. Taken together, our study provides a prospective therapeutic strategy to eliminate osteosarcoma, which is propitious to clinical combination therapy development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tong Xu
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Anti-Cancer Drug Research, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Chao Huang
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Anti-Cancer Drug Research, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Xiao-Tian Qi
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Anti-Cancer Drug Research, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Xiao-Chun Yang
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Anti-Cancer Drug Research, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Ning Zhang
- Department of Orthopedics, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310009, China
| | - Ji Cao
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Anti-Cancer Drug Research, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Chen Wang
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Anti-Cancer Drug Research, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Hong Zhu
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Anti-Cancer Drug Research, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Bo Yang
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Anti-Cancer Drug Research, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Qiao-Jun He
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Anti-Cancer Drug Research, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Xue-Jing Shao
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Anti-Cancer Drug Research, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China.
| | - Mei-Dan Ying
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Anti-Cancer Drug Research, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China.
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Abstract
Drug transporter proteins are critical to the distribution of a wide range of endogenous compounds and xenobiotics such as hormones, bile acids, peptides, lipids, sugars, and drugs. There are two classes of drug transporters- the solute carrier (SLC) transporters and ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters -which predominantly differ in the energy source utilized to transport substrates across a membrane barrier. Despite their hydrophobic nature and residence in the membrane bilayer, drug transporters have dynamic structures and adopt many conformations during the translocation process. Whereas there is significant literature evidence for the substrate specificity and structure-function relationship for clinically relevant drug transporters proteins, there is less of an understanding in the regulatory mechanisms that contribute to the functional expression of these proteins. Post-translational modifications have been shown to modulate drug transporter functional expression via a wide range of molecular mechanisms. These modifications commonly occur through the addition of a functional group (e.g. phosphorylation), a small protein (e.g. ubiquitination), sugar chains (e.g. glycosylation), or lipids (e.g. palmitoylation) on solvent accessible amino acid residues. These covalent additions often occur as a result of a signaling cascade and may be reversible depending on the type of modification and the intended fate of the signaling event. Here, we review the significant role in which post-translational modifications contribute to the dynamic regulation and functional consequences of SLC and ABC drug transporters and highlight recent progress in understanding their roles in transporter structure, function, and regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lindsay C Czuba
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Maryland, 20 Penn Street, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA
| | | | - Peter W Swaan
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Maryland, 20 Penn Street, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA.
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22
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De I, Sadhukhan S. Emerging Roles of DHHC-mediated Protein S-palmitoylation in Physiological and Pathophysiological Context. Eur J Cell Biol 2018; 97:319-338. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejcb.2018.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2018] [Revised: 03/14/2018] [Accepted: 03/16/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
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23
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Moutin E, Nikonenko I, Stefanelli T, Wirth A, Ponimaskin E, De Roo M, Muller D. Palmitoylation of cdc42 Promotes Spine Stabilization and Rescues Spine Density Deficit in a Mouse Model of 22q11.2 Deletion Syndrome. Cereb Cortex 2018; 27:3618-3629. [PMID: 27365300 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhw183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
22q11.2 deletion syndrome (22q11DS) is associated with learning and cognitive dysfunctions and a high risk of developing schizophrenia. It has become increasingly clear that dendritic spine plasticity is tightly linked to cognition. Thus, understanding how genes involved in cognitive disorders affect synaptic networks is a major challenge of modern biology. Several studies have pointed to a spine density deficit in 22q11DS transgenic mice models. Using the LgDel mouse model, we first quantified spine deficit at different stages using electron microscopy. Next we performed repetitive confocal imaging over several days on hippocampal organotypic cultures of LgDel mice. We show no imbalanced ratio between daily spine formation and spine elimination, but a decreased spine life expectancy. We corrected this impaired spine stabilization process by overexpressing ZDHHC8 palmitoyltransferase, whose gene belongs to the LgDel microdeletion. Overexpression of one of its substrates, the cdc42 brain-specific variant, under a constitutively active form (cdc42-palm-CA) led to the same result. Finally, we could rescue spine density in vivo, in adult LgDel mice, by injecting pups with a vector expressing cdc42-palm-CA. This study reveals a new role of ZDHHC8-cdc42-palm molecular pathway in postsynaptic structural plasticity and provides new evidence in favor of the dysconnectivity hypothesis for schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Moutin
- Department of Basic Neurosciences, Medical School, University of Geneva, 1211 Geneva 4, Switzerland
| | - I Nikonenko
- Department of Basic Neurosciences, Medical School, University of Geneva, 1211 Geneva 4, Switzerland
| | - T Stefanelli
- Department of Basic Neurosciences, Medical School, University of Geneva, 1211 Geneva 4, Switzerland
| | - A Wirth
- Cellular Neurophysiology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany
| | - E Ponimaskin
- Cellular Neurophysiology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany
| | - M De Roo
- Department of Basic Neurosciences, Medical School, University of Geneva, 1211 Geneva 4, Switzerland
| | - D Muller
- Department of Basic Neurosciences, Medical School, University of Geneva, 1211 Geneva 4, Switzerland
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Palmitoylation as a Functional Regulator of Neurotransmitter Receptors. Neural Plast 2018; 2018:5701348. [PMID: 29849559 PMCID: PMC5903346 DOI: 10.1155/2018/5701348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2017] [Accepted: 01/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The majority of neuronal proteins involved in cellular signaling undergo different posttranslational modifications significantly affecting their functions. One of these modifications is a covalent attachment of a 16-C palmitic acid to one or more cysteine residues (S-palmitoylation) within the target protein. Palmitoylation is a reversible modification, and repeated cycles of palmitoylation/depalmitoylation might be critically involved in the regulation of multiple signaling processes. Palmitoylation also represents a common posttranslational modification of the neurotransmitter receptors, including G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) and ligand-gated ion channels (LICs). From the functional point of view, palmitoylation affects a wide span of neurotransmitter receptors activities including their trafficking, sorting, stability, residence lifetime at the cell surface, endocytosis, recycling, and synaptic clustering. This review summarizes the current knowledge on the palmitoylation of neurotransmitter receptors and its role in the regulation of receptors functions as well as in the control of different kinds of physiological and pathological behavior.
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Drecourt A, Babdor J, Dussiot M, Petit F, Goudin N, Garfa-Traoré M, Habarou F, Bole-Feysot C, Nitschké P, Ottolenghi C, Metodiev MD, Serre V, Desguerre I, Boddaert N, Hermine O, Munnich A, Rötig A. Impaired Transferrin Receptor Palmitoylation and Recycling in Neurodegeneration with Brain Iron Accumulation. Am J Hum Genet 2018; 102:266-277. [PMID: 29395073 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajhg.2018.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2017] [Accepted: 01/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurodegeneration with brain iron accumulation (NBIA) is a genetically heterogeneous condition characterized by progressive dystonia with iron accumulation in the basal ganglia. How NBIA-associated mutations trigger iron overload remains poorly understood. After studying fibroblast cell lines from subjects carrying both known and unreported biallelic mutations in CRAT and REPS1, we ascribe iron overload to the abnormal recycling of transferrin receptor (TfR1) and the reduction of TfR1 palmitoylation in NBIA. Moreover, we describe palmitoylation as a hitherto unreported level of post-translational TfR1 regulation. A widely used antimalarial agent, artesunate, rescued abnormal TfR1 palmitoylation in cultured fibroblasts of NBIA subjects. These observations suggest therapeutic strategies aimed at targeting impaired TfR1 recycling and palmitoylation in NBIA.
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Gao X, Hannoush RN. A Decade of Click Chemistry in Protein Palmitoylation: Impact on Discovery and New Biology. Cell Chem Biol 2017; 25:236-246. [PMID: 29290622 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2017.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2017] [Revised: 11/10/2017] [Accepted: 11/30/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Protein palmitoylation plays diverse roles in regulating the trafficking, stability, and activity of cellular proteins. The advent of click chemistry has propelled the field of protein palmitoylation forward by providing specific, sensitive, rapid, and easy-to-handle methods for studying protein palmitoylation. This year marks the 10th anniversary since the first click chemistry-based fatty acid probes for detecting protein lipid modifications were reported. The goal of this review is to highlight key biological advancements in the field of protein palmitoylation during the past 10 years. In particular, we discuss the impact of click chemistry on enabling protein palmitoylation proteomics methods, uncovering novel lipid modifications on proteins and elucidating their functions, as well as the development of non-radioactive biochemical and enzymatic assays. In addition, this review provides context for building and exploring new research avenues in protein palmitoylation through the use of clickable fatty acid probes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinxin Gao
- Department of Early Discovery Biochemistry, Genentech, South San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Rami N Hannoush
- Department of Early Discovery Biochemistry, Genentech, South San Francisco, CA, USA.
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Marei H, Malliri A. Rac1 in human diseases: The therapeutic potential of targeting Rac1 signaling regulatory mechanisms. Small GTPases 2017; 8:139-163. [PMID: 27442895 PMCID: PMC5584733 DOI: 10.1080/21541248.2016.1211398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2016] [Revised: 07/05/2016] [Accepted: 07/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Abnormal Rac1 signaling is linked to a number of debilitating human diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular diseases and neurodegenerative disorders. As such, Rac1 represents an attractive therapeutic target, yet the search for effective Rac1 inhibitors is still underway. Given the adverse effects associated with Rac1 signaling perturbation, cells have evolved several mechanisms to ensure the tight regulation of Rac1 signaling. Thus, characterizing these mechanisms can provide invaluable information regarding major cellular events that lead to aberrant Rac1 signaling. Importantly, this information can be utilized to further facilitate the development of effective pharmacological modulators that can restore normal Rac1 signaling. In this review, we focus on the pathological role of Rac1 signaling, highlighting the benefits and potential drawbacks of targeting Rac1 in a clinical setting. Additionally, we provide an overview of available compounds that target key Rac1 regulatory mechanisms and discuss future therapeutic avenues arising from our understanding of these mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hadir Marei
- Cell Signaling Group, Cancer Research UK Manchester Institute, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Angeliki Malliri
- Cell Signaling Group, Cancer Research UK Manchester Institute, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
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Globa AK, Bamji SX. Protein palmitoylation in the development and plasticity of neuronal connections. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2017; 45:210-220. [PMID: 28366531 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2017.02.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2016] [Revised: 02/19/2017] [Accepted: 02/28/2017] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Protein palmitoylation, or the reversible addition of the fatty acid, palmitate, onto substrate proteins, can impact the structure and stability of proteins as well as regulate protein-protein interactions and the trafficking and localization of proteins to cell membranes. This posttranslational modification is mediated by palmitoyl-acyltransferases, consisting of a family of 23 zDHHC proteins in mammals. This review focuses on the subcellular distribution of zDHHC proteins within the neuron and the regulation of zDHHC trafficking and function by synaptic activity. We review recent studies identifying actin binding proteins, cell adhesion molecules and synaptic scaffolding proteins as targets of palmitoylation, and examine the implications of activity-mediated palmitoylation in the establishment and plasticity of neuronal connections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea K Globa
- Department of Cellular and Physiological Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Shernaz X Bamji
- Department of Cellular and Physiological Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z3, Canada.
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29
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Click-Chemistry Based High Throughput Screening Platform for Modulators of Ras Palmitoylation. Sci Rep 2017; 7:41147. [PMID: 28112226 PMCID: PMC5255568 DOI: 10.1038/srep41147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2016] [Accepted: 12/15/2016] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Palmitoylation is a widespread, reversible lipid modification that has been implicated in regulating a variety of cellular processes. Approximately one thousand proteins are annotated as being palmitoylated, and for some of these, including several oncogenes of the Ras and Src families, palmitoylation is indispensable for protein function. Despite this wealth of disease-relevant targets, there are currently few effective pharmacological tools to interfere with protein palmitoylation. One reason for this lack of development is the dearth of assays to efficiently screen for small molecular inhibitors of palmitoylation. To address this shortcoming, we have developed a robust, high-throughput compatible, click chemistry-based approach to identify small molecules that interfere with the palmitoylation of Ras, a high value therapeutic target that is mutated in up to a third of human cancers. This assay design shows excellent performance in 384-well format and is sensitive to known, non-specific palmitoylation inhibitors. Further, we demonstrate an ideal counter-screening strategy, which relies on a target peptide from an unrelated protein, the Src-family kinase Fyn. The screening approach described here provides an integrated platform to identify specific modulators of palmitoylated proteins, demonstrated here for Ras and Fyn, but potentially applicable to pharmaceutical targets involved in a variety of human diseases.
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Li Y, Qi B. Progress toward Understanding Protein S-acylation: Prospective in Plants. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2017; 8:346. [PMID: 28392791 PMCID: PMC5364179 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2017.00346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2017] [Accepted: 02/28/2017] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
S-acylation, also known as S-palmitoylation or palmitoylation, is a reversible post-translational lipid modification in which long chain fatty acid, usually the 16-carbon palmitate, covalently attaches to a cysteine residue(s) throughout the protein via a thioester bond. It is involved in an array of important biological processes during growth and development, reproduction and stress responses in plant. S-acylation is a ubiquitous mechanism in eukaryotes catalyzed by a family of enzymes called Protein S-Acyl Transferases (PATs). Since the discovery of the first PAT in yeast in 2002 research in S-acylation has accelerated in the mammalian system and followed by in plant. However, it is still a difficult field to study due to the large number of PATs and even larger number of putative S-acylated substrate proteins they modify in each genome. This is coupled with drawbacks in the techniques used to study S-acylation, leading to the slower progress in this field compared to protein phosphorylation, for example. In this review we will summarize the discoveries made so far based on knowledge learnt from the characterization of protein S-acyltransferases and the S-acylated proteins, the interaction mechanisms between PAT and its specific substrate protein(s) in yeast and mammals. Research in protein S-acylation and PATs in plants will also be covered although this area is currently less well studied in yeast and mammalian systems.
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Brock EJ, Ji K, Reiners JJ, Mattingly RR. How to Target Activated Ras Proteins: Direct Inhibition vs. Induced Mislocalization. Mini Rev Med Chem 2016; 16:358-69. [PMID: 26423696 DOI: 10.2174/1389557515666151001154002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2015] [Revised: 09/03/2015] [Accepted: 09/18/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Oncogenic Ras proteins are a driving force in a significant set of human cancers and wildtype, unmutated Ras proteins likely contribute to the malignant phenotype of many more. The overall challenge of targeting activated Ras proteins has great promise to treat cancer, but this goal has yet to be achieved. Significant efforts and resources have been committed to inhibiting Ras, but these energies have so far made little impact in the clinic. Direct attempts to target activated Ras proteins have faced many obstacles, including the fundamental nature of the gain-of-function oncogenic activity being produced by a loss-of-function at the biochemical level. Nevertheless, there has been very promising recent pre-clinical progress. The major strategy that has so far reached the clinic aimed to inhibit activated Ras indirectly through blocking its post-translational modification and inducing its mislocalization. While these efforts to indirectly target Ras through inhibition of farnesyl transferase (FTase) were rationally designed, this strategy suffered from insufficient attention to the distinctions between the isoforms of Ras. This led to subsequent failures in large-scale clinical trials targeting K-Ras driven lung, colon, and pancreatic cancers. Despite these setbacks, efforts to indirectly target activated Ras through inducing its mislocalization have persisted. It is plausible that FTase inhibitors may still have some utility in the clinic, perhaps in combination with statins or other agents. Alternative approaches for inducing mislocalization of Ras through disruption of its palmitoylation cycle or interaction with chaperone proteins are in early stages of development.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Raymond R Mattingly
- Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, 540 East Canfield Ave, Detroit MI, USA.
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Maulucci G, Cohen O, Daniel B, Sansone A, Petropoulou PI, Filou S, Spyridonidis A, Pani G, De Spirito M, Chatgilialoglu C, Ferreri C, Kypreos KE, Sasson S. Fatty acid-related modulations of membrane fluidity in cells: detection and implications. Free Radic Res 2016; 50:S40-S50. [PMID: 27593084 DOI: 10.1080/10715762.2016.1231403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Metabolic homeostasis of fatty acids is complex and well-regulated in all organisms. The biosynthesis of saturated fatty acids (SFA) in mammals provides substrates for β-oxidation and ATP production. Monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) are products of desaturases that introduce a methylene group in cis geometry in SFA. Polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-6 and n-3 PUFA) are products of elongation and desaturation of the essential linoleic acid and α-linolenic acid, respectively. The liver processes dietary fatty acids and exports them in lipoproteins for distribution and storage in peripheral tissues. The three types of fatty acids are integrated in membrane phospholipids and determine their biophysical properties and functions. This study was aimed at investigating effects of fatty acids on membrane biophysical properties under varying nutritional and pathological conditions, by integrating lipidomic analysis of membrane phospholipids with functional two-photon microscopy (fTPM) of cellular membranes. This approach was applied to two case studies: first, pancreatic beta-cells, to investigate hormetic and detrimental effects of lipids. Second, red blood cells extracted from a genetic mouse model defective in lipoproteins, to understand the role of lipids in hepatic diseases and metabolic syndrome and their effect on circulating cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Maulucci
- a Institute of Physics, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore , Roma , Italy
| | - O Cohen
- b Institute for Drug Research, Section of Pharmacology, Diabetes Research Unit, Faculty of Medicine , The Hebrew University , Jerusalem , Israel
| | - B Daniel
- b Institute for Drug Research, Section of Pharmacology, Diabetes Research Unit, Faculty of Medicine , The Hebrew University , Jerusalem , Israel
| | - A Sansone
- c ISOF, BioFreeRadicals Group, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche , Bologna , Italy
| | - P I Petropoulou
- d Department of Pharmacology , University of Patras Medical School , Rio , Greece
| | - S Filou
- d Department of Pharmacology , University of Patras Medical School , Rio , Greece
| | - A Spyridonidis
- e Hematology Department , University of Patras Medical School , Rio , Greece
| | - G Pani
- f Institute of General Pathology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore , Roma , Italy
| | - M De Spirito
- a Institute of Physics, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore , Roma , Italy
| | - C Chatgilialoglu
- c ISOF, BioFreeRadicals Group, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche , Bologna , Italy
| | - C Ferreri
- c ISOF, BioFreeRadicals Group, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche , Bologna , Italy
| | - K E Kypreos
- d Department of Pharmacology , University of Patras Medical School , Rio , Greece
| | - S Sasson
- b Institute for Drug Research, Section of Pharmacology, Diabetes Research Unit, Faculty of Medicine , The Hebrew University , Jerusalem , Israel
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33
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Cox AD, Der CJ, Philips MR. Targeting RAS Membrane Association: Back to the Future for Anti-RAS Drug Discovery? Clin Cancer Res 2016; 21:1819-27. [PMID: 25878363 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-14-3214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 278] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
RAS proteins require membrane association for their biologic activity, making this association a logical target for anti-RAS therapeutics. Lipid modification of RAS proteins by a farnesyl isoprenoid is an obligate step in that association, and is an enzymatic process. Accordingly, farnesyltransferase inhibitors (FTI) were developed as potential anti-RAS drugs. The lack of efficacy of FTIs as anticancer drugs was widely seen as indicating that blocking RAS membrane association was a flawed approach to cancer treatment. However, a deeper understanding of RAS modification and trafficking has revealed that this was an erroneous conclusion. In the presence of FTIs, KRAS and NRAS, which are the RAS isoforms most frequently mutated in cancer, become substrates for alternative modification, can still associate with membranes, and can still function. Thus, FTIs failed not because blocking RAS membrane association is an ineffective approach, but because FTIs failed to accomplish that task. Recent findings regarding RAS isoform trafficking and the regulation of RAS subcellular localization have rekindled interest in efforts to target these processes. In particular, improved understanding of the palmitoylation/depalmitoylation cycle that regulates RAS interaction with the plasma membrane, endomembranes, and cytosol, and of the potential importance of RAS chaperones, have led to new approaches. Efforts to validate and target other enzymatically regulated posttranslational modifications are also ongoing. In this review, we revisit lessons learned, describe the current state of the art, and highlight challenging but promising directions to achieve the goal of disrupting RAS membrane association and subcellular localization for anti-RAS drug development. Clin Cancer Res; 21(8); 1819-27. ©2015 AACR. See all articles in this CCR Focus section, "Targeting RAS-Driven Cancers."
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrienne D Cox
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, Chapel Hill, North Carolina.
| | - Channing J Der
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, Chapel Hill, North Carolina.
| | - Mark R Philips
- Perlmutter Cancer Institute, New York University School of Medicine, New York, New York.
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34
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Peng T, Thinon E, Hang HC. Proteomic analysis of fatty-acylated proteins. Curr Opin Chem Biol 2015; 30:77-86. [PMID: 26656971 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2015.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2015] [Revised: 11/06/2015] [Accepted: 11/09/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Protein fatty-acylation in eukaryotes has been associated with many fundamental biological processes. However, the diversity, abundance and regulatory mechanisms of protein fatty-acylation in vivo remain to be explored. Herein, we review the proteomic analysis of fatty-acylated proteins, with a focus on N-myristoylation and S-palmitoylation. We then highlight major challenges and emerging methods for direct site identification, quantitation, and lipid structure characterization to understand the functions and regulatory mechanisms of fatty-acylated proteins in physiology and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Peng
- Laboratory of Chemical Biology and Microbial Pathogenesis, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, United States
| | - Emmanuelle Thinon
- Laboratory of Chemical Biology and Microbial Pathogenesis, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, United States; The Crick Institute, 215 Euston Road, London NW1 2BE, United Kingdom
| | - Howard C Hang
- Laboratory of Chemical Biology and Microbial Pathogenesis, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, United States.
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Lanyon-Hogg T, Masumoto N, Bodakh G, Konitsiotis AD, Thinon E, Rodgers UR, Owens RJ, Magee AI, Tate EW. Click chemistry armed enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay to measure palmitoylation by hedgehog acyltransferase. Anal Biochem 2015; 490:66-72. [PMID: 26334609 PMCID: PMC4615133 DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2015.08.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2015] [Revised: 08/20/2015] [Accepted: 08/21/2015] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Hedgehog signaling is critical for correct embryogenesis and tissue development. However, on maturation, signaling is also found to be aberrantly activated in many cancers. Palmitoylation of the secreted signaling protein sonic hedgehog (Shh) by the enzyme hedgehog acyltransferase (Hhat) is required for functional signaling. To quantify this important posttranslational modification, many in vitro Shh palmitoylation assays employ radiolabeled fatty acids, which have limitations in terms of cost and safety. Here we present a click chemistry armed enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (click-ELISA) for assessment of Hhat activity through acylation of biotinylated Shh peptide with an alkyne-tagged palmitoyl-CoA (coenzyme A) analogue. Click chemistry functionalization of the alkyne tag with azido-FLAG peptide allows analysis through an ELISA protocol and colorimetric readout. This assay format identified the detergent n-dodecyl β-d-maltopyranoside as an improved solubilizing agent for Hhat activity. Quantification of the potency of RU-SKI small molecule Hhat inhibitors by click-ELISA indicated IC50 values in the low- or sub-micromolar range. A stopped assay format was also employed that allows measurement of Hhat kinetic parameters where saturating substrate concentrations exceed the binding capacity of the streptavidin-coated plate. Therefore, click-ELISA represents a nonradioactive method for assessing protein palmitoylation in vitro that is readily expandable to other classes of protein lipidation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Lanyon-Hogg
- Institute of Chemical Biology, Department of Chemistry, Imperial College London, South Kensington SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Naoko Masumoto
- Institute of Chemical Biology, Department of Chemistry, Imperial College London, South Kensington SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - George Bodakh
- Institute of Chemical Biology, Department of Chemistry, Imperial College London, South Kensington SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Antonio D Konitsiotis
- Molecular Medicine Section, National Heart & Lung Institute, Imperial College London, South Kensington SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Emmanuelle Thinon
- Institute of Chemical Biology, Department of Chemistry, Imperial College London, South Kensington SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Ursula R Rodgers
- Molecular Medicine Section, National Heart & Lung Institute, Imperial College London, South Kensington SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Raymond J Owens
- Division of Structural Biology, Henry Wellcome Building for Genomic Medicine, University of Oxford, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford, OX3 7BN, UK; OPPF-UK, The Research Complex at Harwell, Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Harwell, Oxfordshire, OX11 0FA, UK
| | - Anthony I Magee
- Molecular Medicine Section, National Heart & Lung Institute, Imperial College London, South Kensington SW7 2AZ, UK.
| | - Edward W Tate
- Institute of Chemical Biology, Department of Chemistry, Imperial College London, South Kensington SW7 2AZ, UK.
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S-acylation of influenza virus proteins: Are enzymes for fatty acid attachment promising drug targets? Vaccine 2015; 33:7002-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2015.08.095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2015] [Revised: 05/10/2015] [Accepted: 08/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Lai J, Yu B, Cao Z, Chen Y, Wu Q, Huang J, Yang C. Two homologous protein S-acyltransferases, PAT13 and PAT14, cooperatively regulate leaf senescence in Arabidopsis. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2015; 66:6345-53. [PMID: 26160582 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erv347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Lipid modification on the cysteine residues of proteins, known as S-palmitoylation or S-acylation, regulates the subcellular localization and the function of proteins. S-acylation is catalysed by a group of protein acyltransferases (PATs) with a conserved Asp-His-His-Cys (DHHC) motif. The molecular function of S-acylation has been studied in details in yeast and mammalian cells, but its role in plant cells remains unclear. Here it is reported that the expression of two homologous protein acyltransferases- PAT13 and PAT14 -was moderately increased in the older leaves of Arabidopsis. The double mutant of PAT13 and PAT14 displayed a severely early leaf senescence phenotype. The phenotype was complemented by PAT13 or PAT14 overexpression in the double mutant, confirming the roles of PAT13 and PAT14 in this process. Furthermore, the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and cell death were dramatically induced in the double mutant. To investigate the molecular functions of PAT13 and PAT14, their potential S-acylation substrates were predicted by bioinformatics methods. The subcellular localization and S-acylation of a candidate substrate NITRIC OXIDE ASSOCIATED 1 (NOA1), which also plays a role in leaf senescence control, were partially disrupted in the protoplasts of the double mutant. Impairment of S-acylation on NOA1 affected its subcellular localization and its function in leaf senescence regulation. Conclusively, protein S-acyltransferases PAT13 and PAT14 are involved in leaf senescence control- possibly via NOA1 S-acylation-, providing a new sight into the regulation mechanism of S-acylation in leaf senescence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianbin Lai
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Biotechnology for Plant Development, School of Life Science, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, China
| | - Boya Yu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Biotechnology for Plant Development, School of Life Science, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, China
| | - Zhendan Cao
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Biotechnology for Plant Development, School of Life Science, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, China
| | - Yanming Chen
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Biotechnology for Plant Development, School of Life Science, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, China
| | - Qian Wu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Biotechnology for Plant Development, School of Life Science, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, China
| | - Jingyi Huang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Biotechnology for Plant Development, School of Life Science, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, China
| | - Chengwei Yang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Biotechnology for Plant Development, School of Life Science, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, China
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38
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Hitchcock LN, Lattal KM. Histone-mediated epigenetics in addiction. PROGRESS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND TRANSLATIONAL SCIENCE 2015; 128:51-87. [PMID: 25410541 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-800977-2.00003-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Many of the brain regions, neurotransmitter systems, and behavioral changes that occur after occasional drug use in healthy subjects and after chronic drug abuse in addicted patients are well characterized. An emerging literature suggests that epigenetic processes, those processes that regulate the accessibility of DNA to regulatory proteins within the nucleus, are keys to how addiction develops and how it may be treated. Investigations of the regulation of chromatin, the organizational system of DNA, by histone modification are leading to a new understanding of the cellular and behavioral alterations that occur after drug use. We will describe how, when, and where histone tails are modified and how some of the most recognized histone regulation patterns are involved in the cycle of addiction, including initial and chronic drug intake, withdrawal, abstinence, and relapse. Finally, we consider how an approach that targets histone modifications may promote successful treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leah N Hitchcock
- Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon, USA
| | - K Matthew Lattal
- Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon, USA
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39
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Ganesan L, Levental I. Pharmacological Inhibition of Protein Lipidation. J Membr Biol 2015; 248:929-41. [PMID: 26280397 DOI: 10.1007/s00232-015-9835-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2015] [Accepted: 08/07/2015] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Lipid modifications of mammalian proteins are widespread, modifying thousands of targets involved in all aspects of cellular physiology cellular physiology. Broadly, lipidations serve to increase protein hydrophobicity and association with cellular membranes. Often, these modifications are absolutely essential for protein stability and localization, and serve critical roles in dynamic regulation of protein function. A number of lipidated proteins are associated with diseases, including parasite infections, neurological diseases, diabetes, and cancer, suggesting that lipid modifications represent potentially attractive targets for pharmacological intervention. This review briefly describes the various types of posttranslational protein lipid modifications, proteins modified by them, and the enzymatic machinery associated with these. We then discuss several case studies demonstrating successful development of lipidation inhibitors of potential (and more rarely, realized) clinical value. Although this field remains in its infancy, we believe these examples demonstrate the potential utility of targeting protein lipidation as a viable strategy for inhibiting the function of pathogenic proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ilya Levental
- University of Texas Medical School, Houston, TX, USA.
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40
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Tong X, Zhang D, Arthurs B, Li P, Durudogan L, Gupta N, Yin L. Palmitate Inhibits SIRT1-Dependent BMAL1/CLOCK Interaction and Disrupts Circadian Gene Oscillations in Hepatocytes. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0130047. [PMID: 26075729 PMCID: PMC4468094 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0130047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2015] [Accepted: 05/15/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Elevated levels of serum saturated fatty acid palmitate have been shown to promote insulin resistance, increase cellular ROS production, and trigger cell apoptosis in hepatocytes during the development of obesity. However, it remains unclear whether palmitate directly impacts the circadian clock in hepatocytes, which coordinates nutritional inputs and hormonal signaling with downstream metabolic outputs. Here we presented evidence that the molecular clock is a novel target of palmitate in hepatocytes. Palmitate exposure at low dose inhibits the molecular clock activity and suppresses the cyclic expression of circadian targets including Dbp, Nr1d1 and Per2 in hepatocytes. Palmitate treatment does not seem to alter localization or reduce protein expression of BMAL1 and CLOCK, the two core components of the molecular clock in hepatocytes. Instead, palmitate destabilizes the protein-protein interaction between BMAL1-CLOCK in a dose and time-dependent manner. Furthermore, we showed that SIRT1 activators could reverse the inhibitory action of palmitate on BMAL1-CLOCK interaction and the clock gene expression, whereas inhibitors of NAD synthesis mimic the palmitate effects on the clock function. In summary, our findings demonstrated that palmitate inhibits the clock function by suppressing SIRT1 function in hepatocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Tong
- Department of Molecular & Integrative Physiology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Deqiang Zhang
- Department of Molecular & Integrative Physiology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Blake Arthurs
- Department of Molecular & Integrative Physiology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Pei Li
- Department of Molecular & Integrative Physiology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Leigh Durudogan
- Department of Molecular & Integrative Physiology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Neil Gupta
- Department of Molecular & Integrative Physiology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Lei Yin
- Department of Molecular & Integrative Physiology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States of America
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41
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Al Abdallah Q, Fortwendel JR. Exploration of Aspergillus fumigatus Ras pathways for novel antifungal drug targets. Front Microbiol 2015; 6:128. [PMID: 25767465 PMCID: PMC4341556 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2015.00128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2015] [Accepted: 02/03/2015] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Ras pathway signaling is a critical virulence determinant for pathogenic fungi. Localization of Ras to the plasma membrane (PM) is required for Ras network interactions supporting fungal growth and virulence. For example, loss of Aspergillus fumigatus RasA signaling at the PM via inhibition of palmitoylation leads to decreased growth, altered hyphal morphogenesis, decreased cell wall integrity and loss of virulence. In order to be properly localized and activated, Ras proteins must transit a series of post-translational modification (PTM) steps. These steps include farnesylation, proteolytic cleavage of terminal amino acids, carboxymethylation, and palmitoylation. Because Ras activation drives tumor development, Ras pathways have been extensively studied in mammalian cells as a potential target for anti-cancer therapy. Inhibitors of mammalian Ras interactions and PTM components have been, or are actively being, developed. This review will focus on the potential for building upon existing scaffolds to exploit fungal Ras proteins for therapy, synthesizing data from studies employing both mammalian and fungal systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qusai Al Abdallah
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of South Alabama , Mobile, AL, USA
| | - Jarrod R Fortwendel
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of South Alabama , Mobile, AL, USA
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42
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Zhou B, An M, Freeman MR, Yang W. Technologies and Challenges in Proteomic Analysis of Protein S-acylation. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014; 7:256-263. [PMID: 25505364 PMCID: PMC4259255 DOI: 10.4172/jpb.1000327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Protein S-acylation (also called palmitoylation) is a pervasive post-translational modification that plays critical roles in regulating protein trafficking, localization, stability, activity, and complex formation. The past decade has witnessed tremendous advances in the study of protein S-acylation, largely owing to the development of novel S-acylproteomics technologies. In this review, we summarize current S-acylproteomics approaches, critically review published S-acylproteomics studies, and envision future directions for the burgeoning S-acylproteomics field. Emerging S-acylproteomics technologies promise to shed new light on this distinct post-translational modification and facilitate the discovery of new disease mechanisms, biomarkers, and therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Zhou
- Cancer Biology Program, Samuel Oschin Comprehensive Cancer Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA ; Departments of Surgery and Biomedical Sciences, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Mingrui An
- Cancer Biology Program, Samuel Oschin Comprehensive Cancer Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA ; Departments of Surgery and Biomedical Sciences, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Michael R Freeman
- Cancer Biology Program, Samuel Oschin Comprehensive Cancer Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA ; Departments of Surgery and Biomedical Sciences, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Wei Yang
- Cancer Biology Program, Samuel Oschin Comprehensive Cancer Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA ; Departments of Surgery and Biomedical Sciences, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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