Discovery of novel inhibitors for the treatment of glaucoma

Recent advances in the development of Rho kinase inhibitors (2015-2021)

Rho-associated coiled-coil kinases (ROCKs) are key downstream effectors of small GTPases. ROCK plays a central role in diverse cellular events with accumulating evidence supporting the concept that ROCK is important in tumor development and progression. Numerous ROCK inhibitors have been investigated for their therapeutic potential in the treatment of cancers. In this article, we review recent research progress on ROCK inhibitors, especially those with potential for the treatment of cancers, reported in the literature from 2015 to 2021. Most ROCK inhibitors show potent in vitro and in vivo antitumor activities and have potential in the treatment of cancers.

Novel frontiers in neuroprotective therapies in glaucoma: Molecular and clinical aspects

In the last years, neuroprotective therapies have attracted the researcher interests as modern and challenging approach for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, aimed at protecting the nervous system from injuries. Glaucoma is a neurodegenerative disease characterized by progressive excavation of the optic nerve head, retinal axonal injury and corresponding vision loss that affects millions of people on a global scale. The molecular basis of the pathology is largely uncharacterized yet, and the therapeutic approaches available do not change the natural course of the disease. Therefore, in accordance with the therapeutic regimens proposed for other neurodegenerative diseases, a modern strategy to treat glaucoma includes prescription of drugs with neuroprotective activities. With respect to this, several preclinical and clinical investigations on a plethora of different drugs are currently ongoing. In this review, first, the conceptualization of the rationale for the adoption of neuroprotective strategies for retina is summarized. Second, the molecular aspects highlighting glaucoma as a neurodegenerative disease are reported. In conclusion, the molecular and pharmacological properties of most promising direct neuroprotective drugs used to delay glaucoma progression are examined, including: neurotrophic factors, NMDA receptor antagonists, the α2-adrenergic agonist, brimonidine, calcium channel blockers, antioxidant agents, nicotinamide and statins.

Effects of Ripasudil, a Rho-Kinase Inhibitor, on Scar Formation in a Mouse Model of Filtration Surgery

PURPOSE

Glaucoma is a leading cause of blindness worldwide. Characteristic changes occur in the optic nerve and visual field of patients with glaucoma; optic nerve damage can be mitigated by lowering intraocular pressure. Treatment modalities include drugs and lasers; filtration surgery is necessary for patients with insufficient intraocular pressure reduction. Scar formation often contributes to glaucoma filtration surgery failure by increasing fibroblast proliferation and activation. Here, we examined the effects of ripasudil, a Rho-associated protein kinase (ROCK) inhibitor, on postoperative scar formation in human Tenon's fibroblasts.

METHODS

Collagen gel contraction assays were used to compare contractility activity among ripasudil and other anti-glaucoma drugs. The effect of Ripasudil in combination with other anti-glaucoma drugs and transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β), latanoprost and timolol-induce contractions were also tested in this study. Immunofluorescence and Western blotting were used to study the expression of factors relating scarring formation.

RESULTS

Ripasudil inhibited contraction in collagen gel assay and reduced α-smooth muscle actin (SMA) and vimentin (scar formation-related factors) expression, which was inversely promoted by latanoprost, timolol or TGF-β. Ripasudil also inhibited contraction on TGF-β, latanoprost and timolol-induced contraction. Furthermore, we investigated the effects of ripasudil on postoperative scarring in a mouse model; ripasudil suppressed postoperative scar formation by altering the expression of α-SMA and vimentin.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that ripasudil, ROCK inhibitor may inhibit excessive fibrosis after glaucoma filtering surgery vis inhibition the transdifferentiation of tenon fibroblast into myofibroblast and may have a potential effect as anti-scarring for glaucoma filtration surgery.

Cell Sources for Retinal Regeneration: Implication for Data Translation in Biomedicine of the Eye

The main degenerative diseases of the retina include macular degeneration, proliferative vitreoretinopathy, retinitis pigmentosa, and glaucoma. Novel approaches for treating retinal diseases are based on cell replacement therapy using a variety of exogenous stem cells. An alternative and complementary approach is the potential use of retinal regeneration cell sources (RRCSs) containing retinal pigment epithelium, ciliary body, Müller glia, and retinal ciliary region. RRCSs in lower vertebrates in vivo and in mammals mostly in vitro are able to proliferate and exhibit gene expression and epigenetic characteristics typical for neural/retinal cell progenitors. Here, we review research on the factors controlling the RRCSs' properties, such as the cell microenvironment, growth factors, cytokines, hormones, etc., that determine the regenerative responses and alterations underlying the RRCS-associated pathologies. We also discuss how the current data on molecular features and regulatory mechanisms of RRCSs could be translated in retinal biomedicine with a special focus on (1) attempts to obtain retinal neurons de novo both in vivo and in vitro to replace damaged retinal cells; and (2) investigations of the key molecular networks stimulating regenerative responses and preventing RRCS-related pathologies.

Nanoscale Drug Delivery Systems for Glaucoma: Experimental and In Silico Advances

In this review, nanoscale-based drug delivery systems, particularly in relevance to the antiglaucoma drugs, have been discussed. In addition to that, the latest computational/in silico advances in this field are examined in brief. Using nanoscale materials for drug delivery is an ideal option to target tumours, and the drug can be released in areas of the body where traditional drugs may fail to act. Nanoparticles, polymeric nanomaterials, single-wall carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs), quantum dots (QDs), liposomes and graphene are the most important nanomaterials used for drug delivery. Ocular drug delivery is one of the most common and difficult tasks faced by pharmaceutical scientists because of many challenges like circumventing the blood-retinal barrier, corneal epithelium and the blood-aqueous barrier. Authors found compelling empirical evidence of scientists relying on in-silico approaches to develop novel drugs and drug delivery systems for treating glaucoma. This review in nanoscale drug delivery systems will help us understand the existing queries and evidence gaps and will pave the way for the effective design of novel ocular drug delivery systems.

Synthesis and in vitro carbonic anhydrases and acetylcholinesterase inhibitory activities of novel imidazolinone-based benzenesulfonamides

New imidazolinone-based benzenesulfonamides 3a-e and 4a-e were synthesized in three steps and their chemical structures were confirmed by 1 H NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance), 13 C NMR, and high-resolution mass spectrometry. The benzenesulfonamides used were sulfacetamide (3a, 4a), sulfaguanidine (3b, 4b), sulfanilamide (3c, 4c), sulfadiazine (3d, 4d), sulfamerazine (3e), and sulfathiazole (4e). The compounds were evaluated against carbonic anhydrase (CA) and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) enzymes to obtain possible drug candidate/s. The lead compounds of the series were 3a and 4a against human CA (hCA) I, whereas 3d and 4a were leads against hCA II in terms of Ki values. Series 4 includes more effective CAs inhibitors than series 3 (except 3d). Series 4 compounds having a nitro group (except 4d) were 3.3-4.8 times more selective inhibitors than their corresponding analogues 3a-d in series 3, in which hydrogen was located in place of the nitro group, by considering Ki values against hCA II. Compounds 3c and 4c, where the sulfanilamide moiety is available, were the leads in terms of AChE inhibition with the lowest Ki values. The use of secondary sulfonamides was a more effective modification on CA inhibition, whereas the primary sulfonamide was the effective substitution in terms of AChE inhibitory potency.

An update: mechanisms of microRNA in primary open-angle glaucoma

Glaucoma is a disease with characteristic optic neuropathy and loss of vision, leading to blindness, and primary open-angle glaucoma (POAG) is the most common glaucoma type throughout the world. Genetic susceptibility is the main factor in POAG, and most susceptibility genes cause changes in microRNA expression and function, thereby leading to POAG occurrence and development. Increasing evidence indicates that many microRNAs are involved in the regulation of intraocular pressure (IOP) and play an important role in the increase in IOP in POAG. Additionally, microRNA is closely related to optic nerve damage factors (mechanical stress, hypoxia and inflammation). This review discusses the effect of single-nucleotide polymorphisms in POAG-related genes on microRNA and the value of microRNA in the diagnosis and treatment of POAG.

Topical Ocular Delivery of Nanocarriers: A Feasible Choice for Glaucoma Management

Topical ocular delivery is an acceptable and familiar approach for the treatment of common ocular diseases. Novel strategies for the treatment of inherited eye diseases include new pharmacologic agents, gene therapy and genome editing, which lead to the expansion of new management options for eye disorders. The topical ocular delivery of nanocarriers is a technique, which has the potential to facilitate novel treatments. Nanocarrier- based strategies have proven effective for site-targeted delivery. This review summarizes recent development in the area of topical delivery of different nanocarriers (Polymer, Vesicular and dispersed systems) for the management of glaucoma, a group of ocular disorders characterized by progressive and accelerated degeneration of the axons of retinal ganglion cells, which make up the optic nerve. Unique cellular targets for glaucoma treatment, primarily the trabecular meshwork of the anterior segment of the eye, make glaucoma facilitated by the use of nanocarriers an ideal disorder for novel molecular therapies.

Progress in the development of human carbonic anhydrase inhibitors and their pharmacological applications: Where are we today?

Carbonic anhydrases (CAs, EC 4.2.1.1) are widely distributed metalloenzymes in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. They efficiently catalyze the reversible hydration of carbon dioxide to bicarbonate and H⁺  ions and play a crucial role in regulating many physiological processes. CAs are well-studied drug target for various disorders such as glaucoma, epilepsy, sleep apnea, and high altitude sickness. In the past decades, a large category of diverse families of CA inhibitors (CAIs) have been developed and many of them showed effective inhibition toward specific isoforms, and effectiveness in pathological conditions in preclinical and clinical settings. The discovery of isoform-selective CAIs in the last decade led to diminished side effects associated with off-target isoforms inhibition. The many new classes of such compounds will be discussed in the review, together with strategies for their development. Pharmacological advances of the newly emerged CAIs in diseases not usually associated with CA inhibition (neuropathic pain, arthritis, cerebral ischemia, and cancer) will also be discussed.

Functional analysis of mesencephalic astrocyte-derived neurotrophic factor in retinal ganglion cells under oxidative stress

Glaucoma is optic neuropathy that is characterized by progressive neurodegeneration of the retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) and axons. This condition will lead to visual impairment and bring glaucoma to become the second cause of blindness globally. Neuroprotection in glaucoma is needed to prevent the progression of optic neuropathy. In this study, we examined the effects of the superior colliculus (SC), and mesencephalic astrocyte-derived neurotrophic factor (MANF) secreted from the SC, on RGC survival after oxidative stress. SC slices and RGCs from rats (3-day old) were co-cultured using a 3D-transwell system. In addition, primary RGCs from 4 to 5-day-old rats were cultured and treated with 100 μM hydrogen peroxide (H₂ O₂ ), together with stimulation by MANF. Immunoblot and immunofluorescence analyses indicated down-regulated expression levels of several survival markers of RGCs. Extension of neurites was decreased in RGCs treated with 100 μM H₂ O₂ . Following co-culture with SC slices, or the addition of MANF, we found that both the down-regulated expression of neural markers and extension of neurites caused by oxidative stress in RGCs were blocked. Furthermore, we found a decrease in the expression of neural markers and extension of neurites after co-culture with MANF siRNA-treated SC slices compared with slices treated with mock siRNA, but, RGCs co-cultured with SC slices treated with MANF siRNA displayed no-changed about to apoptosis. These results suggest that MANF secreted from the SC may play an important role in maintenance of function and survival of RGCs. It is also possible that MANF is an important factor in neuroprotection of RGCs. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY: Glaucoma is a progressive neurodegenerative disease of the retinal ganglion cell (RGC) and their axons. Neuroprotection is aimed at protecting those neurons that are damaged glaucomatous optic neuropathy. We have now examined the effects of superior colliculus, or msencephalic astrocyte-derived neutrophic factor (MANF), secreted from superior colliculus, on RGC survival using co-culture system. Our results suggested that MANF may important key factor in neuroprotection of RGC.

New thiopyrimidine-benzenesulfonamide conjugates as selective carbonic anhydrase II inhibitors: synthesis, in vitro biological evaluation, and molecular docking studies

In the present work, a new series of thiopyrimidine-benzenesulfonamide conjugates was designed, synthesized and tested as carbonic anhydrase (CA, EC 4.2.1.1) inhibitors. Our design strategy was based on the molecular hybridization of the benzenesulfonamide moiety as a zinc binding group (ZBG), an alkylated thiopyrimidine moiety as a spacer and (un)substituted phenyl moieties with various electronic and hydrophobic environments as a tail. The designed and synthesized compounds were evaluated against four human (h) CA isoforms hCA I, hCA II, hCA IX and hCA XII. Series 6 showed promising activity and selectivity toward the cytosolic isoforms hCA I and hCA II versus the membrane bound isoforms hCA IX and hCA XII. Compounds 6e and 6f showed Ki of 0.04 µM against hCA II with a selectivity of 15.8- to 980-fold towards hCA II over hCA I, hCA IX, hCA XII isoforms. Molecular docking in the hCA II active site attributed the promising inhibitory activity of series 6 to the interaction of their sulfonamide moiety with the active site Zn2+ ion as well as its hydrogen bonding with the key amino acids Thr199 and Thr200. Through hydrophobic interaction, the benzenesulfonamide and the thiopyrimidine moieties interact with the hydrophobic side chains of the amino acids Val121/Leu198 and Ile91/Phe131, respectively. These results indicated that the designed and synthesized series is an interesting scaffold that can be further optimized for the development of selective antiglaucoma drugs.

Brinzolamide loaded chitosan-pectin mucoadhesive nanocapsules for management of glaucoma: Formulation, characterization and pharmacodynamic study

AIM

Brinzolamide (BNZ) is a carbonic anhydrase inhibitor commonly used for the treatment of glaucoma. The aim of this study was to prepare BNZ loaded chitosan-pectin mucoadhesive nanocapsules (CPNCs) by polyelectrolyte complex coacervation method for ocular delivery and evaluated for its anti glaucoma efficacy.

METHODS

The prepared CPNCs were characterized for their particle size, polydispersity index, zeta-potential, surface morphology, entrapment efficiency, drug loading efficiency, mucoadhesive strength in-vitro and ex-vivo release. The pharmacodynamic studies were conducted for CPNCs on glaucoma induced rabbit eye model and compared with marketed product.

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

All the formulated CPNCs exhibited the size range from 217.01 ± 0.21 to 240.05 ± 0.08 nm and appropriate physico-chemical parameters, and depicted a couple of erosion- diffusion release of BNZ over a time of 8 h. Ex-vivo corneal permeation study concluded that BNZ loaded CPNCs crosses the cornea potentially higher rate as compared to the marketed product. In pharmacodynamic study, greater intraocular pressure lowering effect was achieved by CPNCs as compared to marketed drug product.

CONCLUSION

The result concluded that CPNCs are a feasible choice to conventional eye drops because of its ability to improve the bioavailability via its longer precorneal retention time and its ability to sustained release of the drug.

Rho kinase inhibitors-a review on the physiology and clinical use in Ophthalmology

The Rho kinase (ROCK) signaling pathway is involved in several cellular events that include cell proliferation and cytoskeleton modulation leading to cell adhesion. The ROCK pathway in the human eye has been hypothesized to play important roles in corneal endothelial cell physiology and pathologic states. In addition, ROCK signaling has been identified as an important regulator of trabecular meshwork (TM) outflow, which is altered in glaucomatous eyes. These roles in corneal and glaucomatous disease states have led to the growing interest in the development of drugs selectively targeting this pathway (ROCK inhibitors). The authors provide a review of the literature on the pathobiology of the ROCK signaling in corneal endothelial disease, glaucoma, and vitreoretinal disease, as well as the clinical usefulness of ROCK inhibitors in Ophthalmology.

An in vitro study of scarring formation mediated by human Tenon fibroblasts: Effect of Y-27632, a Rho kinase inhibitor

Scar formation is the most common cause for failure of glaucoma filtration surgery because of increased fibroblast proliferation and activation. We have now examined the effect of Y‐27632, a Rho‐associated protein kinase (ROCK) inhibitor, on postsurgical scarring formation in human Tenon fibroblasts (HTFs). Collagen gel contraction assay was used to compare contractility activity of Y‐27632 with several antiglaucoma drugs. Immunofluorescence and western blotting were used to examine expression of scar formation–related factors. We found that Y‐27632 inhibited collagen gel contraction, as well as α‐smooth muscle actin and vimentin expression; these were promoted by treatment with latanoprost, timolol, or transforming growth factor (TGF)–β. To investigate the effect of Y‐27632 in postsurgical scarring, we mimicked TGF‐β secretion by stimulating HTFs with TGF‐β prior to Y‐27632 treatment. HTFs cultured in the presence of TGF‐β significantly increased gel contraction. In contrast, when HTFs were treated with 10μM Y‐27632, contraction was significantly inhibited. Furthermore, Y‐27632 reduced TGF‐β–induced phosphorylation of mitogen‐activated protein kinase signalling. These results suggest that ROCK inhibitors may inhibit fibrosis by inhibiting transdifferentiation of Tenon fibroblasts into myofibroblasts and by inhibiting TGF‐β signalling after surgery through mitogen‐activated protein kinase pathway suppression. These results implicate that ROCK inhibitors may improve outcomes after filtering surgery with a potential antiscarring effect, while latanoprost and timolol may induce fibrosis.

Significance of the study

Scar formation is the primary cause of failure after glaucoma filtration surgery. A ROCK inhibitor, Y‐27632, has been introduced as a novel potential antiglaucoma treatment to reduce intraocular pressure. The aim of our study was to elucidate the effect of Y‐27632 on scarring formation after glaucoma filtration surgery, in direct comparison with other antiglaucoma drugs. Our findings thus suggested that Y‐27632 may inhibit fibrosis and improve outcome after glaucoma filtration surgery through inhibition of transdifferentiation of Tenon fibroblasts into myofibroblasts, and the TGF‐β and MAPK signalling after surgery, while latanoprost and timolol may induce fibrosis.

Protective effects of ciliary neurotrophic factor on the retinal ganglion cells by injure of hydrogen peroxide

AIM

To explore the effect of ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF) on retinal ganglion cell (RGC)-5 induced by hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂).

METHODS

After cell adherence, RGC-5 culture medium was changed to contain different concentrations of H₂O₂ from 50 to 150 µmol/L at four time points (0.5, 1, 1.5 and 2h) to select the concentration and time point for H₂O₂ induced model. Two different ways of interventions for injured RGC-5 cells respectively were CNTF as an addition in the culture medium or recombinant lentiviral plasmid carrying CNTF gene transfecting bone mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) for co-culture with RGC-5.

RESULTS

Compared to the control group, H₂O₂ led to RGC-5 death closely associated with concentrations and action time of H₂O₂ and we chose 125 µmol/L and 2h to establish the H₂O₂-induced model. While CNTF inhibited the loss of RGC-5 cells obviously with a dose-dependent survival rate. Nevertheless two administration routes had different survival rate yet higher rate in recombinant lentiviral plasmid group but there were no statistically significant differences.

CONCLUSION

Both the two administration routes of CNTF have effects on RGC-5 cells induced by H₂O₂. If their own advantages were combined, there may be a better administration route.

Data on the effects of imidazo[1,2-a]benzimidazole and pyrimido[1,2-a]benzimidazole compounds on intraocular pressure of ocular normotensive rats

This data is to document the intraocular pressure (IOP) lowering activity of imidazo[1,2-a]benzimidazole and pyrimido[1,2-a]benzimidazole compounds in ocular normotensive rats. Effects of single drop application of imidazo[1,2-a]benzimidazole and pyrimido[1,2-a]benzimidazole compounds on IOP in ocular normotensive rats are presented at 3 different concentrations (0.1%, 0.2% and 0.4%). Time course of changes in IOP is presented over 6 h period post-instillation. The IOP lowering activities of test compounds were determined by assessing maximum decrease in IOP from baseline and corresponding control, duration of IOP lowering and area under curve (AUC) of time versus response curve. Data shown here may serve as benchmarks for other researchers studying IOP-lowering effect of imidazo[1,2-a]benzimidazole and pyrimido[1,2-a]benzimidazole compounds and would be useful in determining therapeutic potential of these test compounds as IOP lowering agents.

Recent advances in the rational design and development of LIM kinase inhibitors are not enough to enter clinical trials

LIM kinases are involved in various pathophysiological processes that depend on actin organization. Alteration of microtubule dynamics by LIMK dysregulation is in fact related to tumor progression and metastasis, viral infection, and ocular diseases, such as glaucoma. As a consequence, many efforts have been done in recent years to rationally design small molecules able to inhibit LIMK activity selectively, without affecting other kinases. As a result, compounds optimized in terms of binding affinity and pharmacokinetic parameters have been discovered, that however failed to access clinical trials. In this review, a comprehensive survey of recent LIMK inhibitors is reported, together with SAR considerations and optimization processes.

2-Benzylpiperazine: A new scaffold for potent human carbonic anhydrase inhibitors. Synthesis, enzyme inhibition, enantioselectivity, computational and crystallographic studies and in vivo activity for a new class of intraocular pressure lowering agents

Two series of 2-benzylpiperazines have been prepared and tested for the inhibition of physiologically relevant isoforms of human carbonic anhydrases (hCA, EC 4.2.1.1). The new compounds carry on one nitrogen atom of the piperazine ring a sulfamoylbenzamide group as zinc-binding moiety, and different alkyl/acyl/sulfonyl groups on the other nitrogen. Regio- and stero-isomers are described. The majority of these compounds showed Ki values in the low-medium nanomolar range against hCA I, II and IV, but not IX. In many instances interaction with the enzyme was enantioselective. The binding mode has been studied by means of X-ray crystallography and molecular modelling. Two compounds, evaluated in rabbit models of glaucoma, were able to significantly reduce intraocular pressure, making them interesting candidates for further studies.

Strategies to Reduce Oxidative Stress in Glaucoma Patients

BACKGROUND

Primary open-angle glaucoma (POAG) is a multifactorial pathology involving a variety of pathogenic mechanisms, including oxidative/nitrosative stress. This latter is the consequence of the imbalance between excessive formation and insufficient protection against reactive oxygen/nitrogen species.

OBJECTIVE

Our main goal is to gather molecular information to better managing pathologic variants that may determine the individual susceptibility to oxidative/nitrosative stress (OS/NS) and POAG.

METHOD

An extensive search of the scientific literature was conducted using PUBMED, the Web of Science, the Cochrane Library, and other references on the topic of POAG and OS/NS from human and animal model studies published between 2010 and 2017. Finally, 152 works containing relevant information that may help understanding the role of antioxidants, essential fatty acids, natural compounds and other similar strategies for counteracting OS/NS in POAG were considered.

RESULTS

A wide variety of studies have proven that antioxidants, among them vitamins B3, C and E, Coenzyme Q10 or melatonin, ω-3/ω-6 fatty acids and other natural compounds (such as coffee, green tea, bear bile, gingko biloba, coleus, tropical fruits, etc.,) may help regulating the intraocular pressure as well as protecting the retinal neurons against OS/NS in POAG.

CONCLUSION

Based on the impact of antioxidants and ω-3/ω-6 fatty acids at the molecular level in the glaucomatous anterior and posterior eye segments, further studies are needed by integrating all issues involved in glaucoma pathogenesis, endogenous and exogenous risk factors and their interactions that will allow us to reach newer effective biotherapies for preventing glaucomatous irreversible blindness.

Experimental research on the relationship between the stiffness and the expressions of fibronectin proteins and adaptor proteins of rat trabecular meshwork cells

Background

Trabecular meshwork (TM) plays an important role in maintaining normal intraocular pressure (IOP). Studies have shown that glaucomatous TM tissues are stiffer than those of normal tissue. The high expression of fibronectin protein (FN) and adaptor protein (LNK) may be related to high resistance to aqueous humor outflow as well as high IOP. Our concern is what factors lead to the variation of the stiffness of trabecular tissue/cells.

Methods

Atomic force microscope (AFM) and Western blot (WB) analysis were applied to test TM cells of rats cultured with different concentrations of dexamethasone (DEX) and mifepristone (MIF). Rat TM cells were randomly divided into 7 groups, marked as D1, D2, D3 and M1, M2 M3 for different concentrations of DEX and MIF, respectively, and C for blank control.

Results

The elastic modulus of the treated cells were 2.67 ± 0.914 KPa, 2.92 ± 0.986 KPa, 4.52 ± 1.22 KPa for D1, D2, D3, 2.06 ± 0.745 KPa, 1.23 ± 0.462 KPa, 0.467 ± 0.275 KPa for M1, M2, M3, and 2.43 ± 0.713 KPa for C group, respectively. Expressions of FN and LNK increase (decrease) with the increase of the concentrations of DEX (MIF).

Discussion

We focus on the relationship between the stiffness and the expressions of FN and LNK of rat TM cells. We analyzed the correlation between cell stiffness and FN, LNK expression, discussed the relationship between cell stiffness and aqueous humor outflow resistance.

Conclusions

The changes of TM cell stiffness and the expressions of FN and LNK are positively correlated.

A Simple Isomerization of the Purine Scaffold of a Kinase Inhibitor, Roscovitine, Affords a Four- to Seven-Fold Enhancement of Its Affinity for Four CDKs. Could This Be Traced Back to Conjugation-Induced Stiffenings/Loosenings of Rotational Barriers?

Roscovitine is an antitumor purine inhibitor of cyclin-dependent kinase CDK5, for which it displays submicromolar affinity. It reached phase IIb clinical trials in 2007. The search for analogues with improved kinase affinities led recently to an isomer, finisterine, having a nearly 10-fold greater affinity for both CDK5 and CDK9. It solely differs by the displacement of one nitrogen atom in the purine ring, from position 6 to position 9. This has no incidence on the intermolecular interaction of either drug with the neighboring sites that anchor the ring in the recognition site. Quantum chemistry calculations combined with conformational and topological analyses of the impact of the purine ring isomerization of roscovitine and finisterine on its conformational stability show that the modified electronic conjugation, on the other hand, results in a stiffening of the rotational barrier around the extracyclic C-NH bond of finisterine, vicinal to N9, and to which an aryl ring is connected, along with a loosening of the barrier around an extracyclic C6-C bond connecting to a shorter, hydrophobic arm. The first effect is proposed to lead to a lesser hydration entropy of solvation in the case of finisterine, thus to a facilitated desolvation term in the overall energy balances.

Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors: a review on the progress of patent literature (2011-2016)

INTRODUCTION

A large area of carbonic anhydrase (CA) research focuses on the inhibition of human CA IX and CA XII, as these isoforms have been designated as biomarkers and therapeutic targets for various cancer types.

AREAS COVERED

Recently, the majority of CA inhibitor (CAI) patents cover compound design, synthesis, and delivery methods for the treatment of glaucoma and cancer. The analysis of included patents highlights the need for isoform specific inhibitors. This review covers the patents of medically relevant carbonic anhydrase inhibitors between 2011-2016.

EXPERT OPINION

The improvement of structure-based drug design methods and access to the crystal structures of human CA isoforms have improved inhibitor development. This progress can be observed in relation to the selective inhibition of CA IX for cancer treatments, with one inhibitor in clinical trials. However, the design of nonclassical CAIs is essential to further improve isoform specificity and prevent sulfur allergies.

Modulating Innate and Adaptive Immunity by (R)-Roscovitine: Potential Therapeutic Opportunity in Cystic Fibrosis

(R)-Roscovitine, a pharmacological inhibitor of kinases, is currently in phase II clinical trial as a drug candidate for the treatment of cancers, Cushing's disease and rheumatoid arthritis. We here review the data that support the investigation of (R)-roscovitine as a potential therapeutic agent for the treatment of cystic fibrosis (CF). (R)-Roscovitine displays four independent properties that may favorably combine against CF: (1) it partially protects F508del-CFTR from proteolytic degradation and favors its trafficking to the plasma membrane; (2) by increasing membrane targeting of the TRPC6 ion channel, it rescues acidification in phagolysosomes of CF alveolar macrophages (which show abnormally high pH) and consequently restores their bactericidal activity; (3) its effects on neutrophils (induction of apoptosis), eosinophils (inhibition of degranulation/induction of apoptosis) and lymphocytes (modification of the Th17/Treg balance in favor of the differentiation of anti-inflammatory lymphocytes and reduced production of various interleukins, notably IL-17A) contribute to the resolution of inflammation and restoration of innate immunity, and (4) roscovitine displays analgesic properties in animal pain models. The fact that (R)-roscovitine has undergone extensive preclinical safety/pharmacology studies, and phase I and II clinical trials in cancer patients, encourages its repurposing as a CF drug candidate.