Nanoparticles of Chitosan Loaded Ciprofloxacin: Fabrication and Antimicrobial Activity

Ciprofloxacin-Loaded Inhalable Formulations against Lower Respiratory Tract Infections: Challenges, Recent Advances, and Future Perspectives

Inhaled ciprofloxacin (CFX) has been investigated as a treatment for lower respiratory tract infections (LRTIs) associated with cystic fibrosis (CF), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and bronchiectasis. The challenges in CFX effectiveness for LRTI treatment include poor aqueous solubility and therapy resistance. CFX dry powder for inhalation (DPI) formulations were well-tolerated, showing a remarkable decline in overall bacterial burden compared to a placebo in bronchiectasis patients. Recent research using an inhalable powder combining Pseudomonas phage PEV20 with CFX exhibited a substantial reduction in bacterial density in mouse lungs infected with clinical P. aeruginosa strains and reduced inflammation. Currently, studies suggest that elevated biosynthesis of fatty acids could serve as a potential biomarker for detecting CFX resistance in LRTIs. Furthermore, inhaled CFX has successfully addressed various challenges associated with traditional CFX, including the incapacity to eliminate the pathogen, the recurrence of colonization, and the development of resistance. However, further exploration is needed to address three key unresolved issues: identifying the right patient group, determining the optimal treatment duration, and accurately assessing the risk of antibiotic resistance, with additional multicenter randomized controlled trials suggested to tackle these challenges. Importantly, future investigations will focus on the effectiveness of CFX DPI in bronchiectasis and COPD, aiming to differentiate prognoses between these two conditions. This review underscores the importance of CFX inhalable formulations against LRTIs in preclinical and clinical sectors, their challenges, recent advancements, and future perspectives.

Fabrication and antimicrobial properties of novel meropenem-honey encapsulated chitosan nanoparticles against multiresistant and biofilm-forming Staphylococcus aureus as a new antimicrobial agent

BACKGROUND

Honey exhibits a broad spectrum of antibacterial activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) ones. Chitosan (Cs) is a mucoadhesive polymer that also has antibacterial properties. Special attention has been paid to the design of polymeric nanoparticles (NPs) as new nano drug delivery systems to overcome bacterial resistance and its problems.

OBJECTIVES

The aim of the present study is to synthesize Cs-meropenem NPs with/without honey as an antibiofilm and antibacterial agent to inhibit Staphylococcus aureus.

METHODS

This study synthesized meropenem and honey-loaded Cs nanogels and subsequently characterized them by Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FESEM), Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), and DLS-zeta potential. Using the broth microdilution and crystal violet assays, the antibacterial and antibiofilm activity of meropenem and honey-loaded Cs nanogel, free meropenem, free honey, and free Cs NPs were investigated in vitro against MRSA strains. 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromide (MTT) was also used to test the cytotoxicity of several Cs-NPs compound against the HEK-293 regular cell line.

RESULTS

The average size of meropenem and honey-Cs-NPs was reported to be 119.885 nm, and encapsulation efficiency was 88.33 ± 0.97 with stability up to 60 days at 4°C. The NPs showed enhanced antibiofilm efficacy against S. aureus at sub-minimum inhibitory concentrations. Additionally, the cytotoxicity of meropenem and honey-encapsulated Cs against the HEK-293 normal cell line was insignificant.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggested that meropenem and honey-Cs-NPs might be potential antibacterial and antibiofilm materials.

Efficacy of Gentamicin-Loaded Chitosan Nanoparticles Against Staphylococcus aureus Internalized in Osteoblasts

Staphylococcus aureus, the principal causative agent of osteomyelitis, can be internalized by osteoblasts and thereby escape from immune phagocytes and many kinds of antibiotics. To deliver antibiotics into osteoblasts to kill S. aureus in the intracellular environment, we developed gentamicin-loaded chitosan nanoparticles and evaluated their intracellular bactericidal effect. We found decreased numbers of S. aureus cells in infected osteoblasts treated with gentamicin-loaded chitosan nanoparticles. The cytotoxicity of the nanoparticles was evaluated by CCK-8 assay. There was no significant viability decrease at all tested concentrations. In conclusion, our results provide evidence for the potential use of gentamicin-loaded chitosan nanoparticles to enhance the delivery of gentamicin into cells and for their antibacterial effect against internalized S. aureus in the intracellular environment of osteoblasts.

Lactoferrin/pectin nanocomplex encapsulating ciprofloxacin and naringin as a lung targeting antibacterial nanoplatform with oxidative stress alleviating effect

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is an opportunistic Gram-negative bacterium with adaptive metabolic abilities. It can cause hospital-acquired infections with significant mortality rates, particularly in people with already existing medical conditions. Its ability to develop resistance to common antibiotics makes managing this type of infections very challenging. Furthermore, oxidative stress is a common consequence of bacterial infection and antibiotic therapy, due to formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) during their mode of action. In this study we aimed to alleviate oxidative stress and enhance the antibacterial efficacy of ciprofloxacin (CPR) antibiotic by its co-encapsulation with naringin (NAR) within a polyelectrolyte complex (PEX). The PEX comprised of polycationic lactoferrin (LF) and polyanionic pectin (PEC). CPR/NAR-loaded PEX exhibited spherical shape with particle size of 237 ± 3.5 nm, negatively charged zeta potential (-23 ± 2.2 mV) and EE% of 61.2 ± 4.9 for CPR and 76.2 ± 3.4 % for NAR. The LF/PEC complex showed prolonged sequential release profile of CPR to limit bacterial expansion, followed by slow liberation of NAR, which mitigates excess ROS produced by CPR's mechanism of action without affecting its efficacy. Interestingly, this PEX demonstrated good hemocompatibility with no significant in vivo toxicity regarding hepatic and renal functions. In addition, infected mice administrated this nanoplatform intravenously exhibited significant CFU reduction in the lungs and kidneys, along with reduced immunoreactivity against myeloperoxidase. Moreover, this PEX was found to reduce the lungs´ oxidative stress via increasing both glutathione (GSH) and catalase (CAT) levels while lowering malondialdehyde (MDA). In conclusion, CPR/NAR-loaded PEX can offer a promising targeted lung delivery strategy while enhancing the therapeutic outcomes of CPR with reduced oxidative stress.

Evaluation of the Potential of Chitosan Nanoparticles as a Delivery Vehicle for Gentamicin for the Treatment of Osteomyelitis

Chitosan nanoparticle delivery systems have the potential for enhancing bone healing and addressing osteomyelitis. The objective was to deliver antimicrobial agents capable of preventing or treating osteomyelitis. Each formulation was optimized to achieve desired characteristics in terms of size (ranging from 100 to 400 nm), PDI (less than 0.5), zeta potential (typically negative), and in vitro release profiles for gentamicin. Entrapment percentages varied with gentamicin ranging from 10% to 65%. The chitosan nanoparticles exhibited substantial antimicrobial efficacy, particularly against P. aeruginosa and MRSA, with zones of inhibition ranging from 13 to 24 mm and a complete reduction in colony forming units observed between 3 and 24 h. These chitosan nanoparticle formulations loaded with antimicrobials hold promise for addressing orthopedic complications.

Co-Delivery of Naringin and Ciprofloxacin by Oleic Acid Lipid Core Encapsulated in Carboxymethyl Chitosan/Alginate Nanoparticle Composite for Enhanced Antimicrobial Activity

A novel combination of antibiotic, ciprofloxacin (CIP) with herbal counterpart naringin (NAR) was encapsulated by an oleic acid lipid core and carboxymethyl chitosan (CM-CS)/Alginate (AG) nanoparticle composite (CIP + NAR-CM-CS/AG-NPs) for improved antimicrobial efficacy of antibiotic. Herein, this study explored the design and preparation of a composite system that enables to deliver both CIP and NAR from the oleic acid lipid core of CM-CS/AG nanoparticles using a nonsolvent ionic gelation technique. The nanoparticles (NPs) were fabricated with improved long-acting antimicrobial activity against E. coli and S. aureus. The optimized composition was investigated for physicochemical properties particle size, particle distribution, and ζ-potential. A diverse array of analytical tools was employed to characterize the optimized formulation including DSC, XRD, Malvern Zetasizer for particle size, ζ-potential, TEM, and SEM. Further, the preparation was investigated for % drug release, flux determination, antioxidant, and antimicrobial activity. The formulation stability was tested for 90 days and also evaluated formulation stability in fetal bovine serum to inspect the modification in physicochemical characteristics. NPs size was determined at 85 nm, PDI, and ζ-potential was recorded at 0.318, and 0.7 ± 0.4 mV. The % CIP and NAR entrapment efficiency and % loading were incurred as 91 ± 1.9, and 89.5 ± 1.2; 11.5 ± 0.6, and 10.8 ± 0.5%, respectively. The drug release erupted in the beginning phase followed by sustained and prolonged release for 48 h. The analytical experiments by DSC ensured the noninteracting and safe use of excipients in combination. X-ray studies demonstrated the amorphous state of the drug in the formulation. The insignificant alteration of formulation characteristics in FBS suggested stable and robust preparation. Storage stability of the developed formulation ensured consistent and uniform stability for three months. The DPPH assays demonstrated that NAR had good antioxidant capacity and supported improving antimicrobial activity of CIP. The hemolytic test suggested the developed formulation was compatible and caused insignificant RBC destruction. The in-house built formulation CIP + NAR-CM-CS/AG-NPs significantly improved the antimicrobial activity compared to CIP alone, offering a novel choice in antimicrobial application.

Development of Ciprofloxacin-Loaded Electrospun Yarns of Application Interest as Antimicrobial Surgical Suture Materials

Surgical site infections (SSI) occur very frequently during post-operative procedures and are often treated with oral antibiotics, which may cause some side effects. This type of infection could be avoided by encapsulating antimicrobial/anti-inflammatory drugs within the surgical suture materials so that they can more efficiently act on the site of action during wound closure, avoiding post-operative bacterial infection and spreading. This work was aimed at developing novel electrospun bio-based anti-infective fibre-based yarns as novel suture materials for preventing surgical site infections. For this, yarns based on flying intertwined microfibres (1.95 ± 0.22 µm) were fabricated in situ during the electrospinning process using a specially designed yarn collector. The electrospun yarn sutures (diameter 300-500 µm) were made of poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) with different contents of 3HV units and contained ciprofloxacin hydrochloride (CPX) as the antimicrobial active pharmaceutical ingredient (API). The yarns were then analysed by scanning electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, wide-angle X-ray scattering, differential scanning calorimetry, and in vitro drug release. The yarns were also analysed in terms of antimicrobial and mechanical properties. The material characterization indicated that the varying polymer molecular architecture affected the attained polymer crystallinity, which was correlated with the different drug-eluting profiles. Moreover, the materials exhibited the inherent stiff behaviour of PHBV, which was further enhanced by the API. Lastly, all the yarn sutures presented antimicrobial properties for a time release of 5 days against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative pathogenic bacteria. The results highlight the potential of the developed antimicrobial electrospun yarns in this study as potential innovative suture materials to prevent surgical infections.

Poly(ethylene glycol) Methyl Ether Acrylate-Grafted Chitosan-Based Micro- and Nanoparticles as a Drug Delivery System for Antibiotics

Nanotechnology is the science of creating materials at the nanoscale by using various devices, structures, and systems that are often inspired by nature. Micro- and nanoparticles (MPs, NPs) are examples of such materials that have unique properties and can be used as carriers for delivering drugs for different biomedical applications. Chitosan (CS) is a natural polysaccharide that has been widely studied, but it has a problem with low water solubility at neutral or basic pH, which limits its processability. The goal of this work was to use a chemically modified CS with poly(ethylene glycol) methyl ether acrylate (PEGA) to prepare CS micronic and submicronic particles (MPs/NPs) that can deliver different types of antibiotics, respectively, levofloxacin (LEV) and Ciprofloxacin (CIP). The particle preparation procedure employed a double crosslinking method, ionic followed by a covalent, in a water/oil emulsion. The studied process parameters were the precursor concentration, stirring speeds, and amount of ionic crosslinking agent. MPs/NPs were characterized by FT-IR, SEM, light scattering granulometry, and Zeta potential. MPs/NPs were also tested for their water uptake capacity in acidic and neutral pH conditions, and the results showed that they had a pH-dependent behavior. The MPs/NPs were then used to encapsulate two separate drugs, LEV and CIP, and they showed excellent drug loading and release capacity. The MPs/NPs were also found to be safe for cells and blood, which demonstrated their potential as suitable drug delivery systems for biomedical applications.

Chitosan-Coated Azithromycin/Ciprofloxacin-Loaded Polycaprolactone Nanoparticles: A Characterization and Potency Study

Purpose

Antimicrobial resistance is a major health hazard worldwide. Combining azithromycin (AZ) and ciprofloxacin (CIP) in one drug delivery system was proposed to boost their antibacterial activity and overcome resistance. This study aims to improve azithromycin and ciprofloxacin activity by co-encapsulating them inside chitosan-coated polymeric nanoparticles and evaluating their antibacterial activity.

Methods

The double emulsion method was employed to co-encapsulate AZ/CIP inside chitosan-coated polymeric nanoparticles. The formulations were evaluated for their nanoparticle size, size distribution, and zeta potential. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) analysis characterized the formula's thermal sustainability. Encapsulation efficiency was measured by HPLC and spectrophotometric analysis. Morphological studies used the Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM). The in vitro release profiles of both AZ and CIP were monitored utilizing the dialysis membrane bag method. The micro-dilution assay assessed the antimicrobial activity against a clinical isolate of Klebsiella pneumoniae.

Results

The prepared AZ/CIP-poly-caprolactone nanoparticles were spherical; their size range was 184.0 ± 3.3-190.4 ± 5.6 nm and had high size uniformity (poly-dispersity index below 0.2). The zeta potential ranged from -21.2 ± 2.4 to -27.0 ± 2.5 mV, while chitosan-coated nanoparticles showed a positive zeta potential value ranging from 8 to 11 mV. The thermal study confirmed the amorphous state of both antibiotics inside the nanoparticles. The results of the in vitro release study indicated a slow and uniform rate of release for both drugs extended over 4-days, with a faster rate in the case of AZ. The MIC values reported for both chitosan-coated NP have been tremendously reduced by at least 15 folds of pure CIP and more than 60 folds of pure AZ.

Conclusion

The co-encapsulation of AZ/CIP into chitosan-coated polymeric nanoparticles has been successfully achieved. The produced particles showed many beneficial attributes of uniform particle sizes below 200 nm and high zeta potential values. Chitosan-coated polymeric nanoparticles extensively enhanced the antibacterial activity of both AZ/CIP against bacteria.

Caffeine-folic acid-loaded-chitosan nanoparticles combined with methotrexate as a novel HepG2 immunotherapy targeting adenosine A2A receptor downstream cascade

BACKGROUND

Methotrexate (MTX) is a common chemotherapeutic drug that inhibits DNA synthesis and induces apoptosis. Treatment with MTX increased CD73 expression, which leads to higher levels of extracellular adenosine. Adenosine levels are also high in the tumor microenvironment through Cancer cells metabolism. That promotes the survival of cancer cells and contributes to tumor immune evasion through the Adenosine 2a Receptor. A2A receptor antagonists are an emerging class of agents that treat cancers by enhancing immunotherapy, both as monotherapy and in combination with other therapeutic agents. Caffeine is an adenosine receptor antagonist. Herein, we demonstrate the ability of a novel well prepared and characterized nano formula CAF-FA-CS-NPs (D4) for A2aR blockade when combination with MTX to improve its antitumor efficacy by enhancing the immune system and eliminating immune suppression.

METHODS

CAF-FA-CS-NPs (D4) were prepared and characterized for particle size, loading efficiency, and release profile. Molecular docking was used to validate the binding affinity of caffeine and folic acid to A2A receptor. The effects of the nano formula were evaluated on human liver cancer cells (HepG2), breast cancer cells (MCF-7), and MDA-MB-231, as well as normal human cells (WI-38). Different combination ratios of MTX and D4 were studied to identify the optimal combination for further genetic studies.

RESULTS

Molecular docking results validated that caffeine and folic acid have binding affinity to A2A receptor. The CS-NPs were successfully prepared using ionic gelation method, with caffeine and folic acid being loaded and conjugated to the nanoparticles through electrostatic interactions. The CAF loading capacity in D4 was 77.9 ± 4.37% with an encapsulation efficiency of 98.5 ± 0.37. The particle size was optimized through ratio variations. The resulting nanoparticles were fully characterized. The results showed that (D4) had antioxidant activity and cytotoxicity against different cancer cells. The combination of D4 with MTX (IC50 D4 + 0.5 IC50 MTX) resulted in the downregulation of Bcl-2, FOXP3, CD39, and CD73 gene expression levels and upregulation of Bax and A2AR gene expression levels in HepG2 cells.

CONCLUSIONS

This study suggests that CAF-FA-CS-NPs (D4) in combination with MTX may be a promising candidate for cancer immunotherapy, by inhibiting A2aR signaling and leading to improved immune activation and anti-tumor activity of MTX.

pH-responsive magnetic biocompatible chitosan-based nanocomposite carrier for ciprofloxacin release

The pH-sensitive and magnetic-triggered release ensures the effective delivery of drugs. Chitosan carries amine pendants that encourage the fabrication of pH-responsive carriers. Montmorillonite (MMt), an attractive nano-clay in drug delivery possessing high encapsulation properties, was magnetized through the co-precipitation of Fe3+/Fe2+ ions. The study aimed to integrate the magnetic montmorillonite (mMMt) into the chitosan matrix and crosslinked by citric acid (CA) to achieve the nanocomposite carrier with double-responsive features for effective drug delivery. The release evaluation revealed that coating the mMMt with CA-crosslinked chitosan prevented the burst release of Ciprofluxcacin (Cip). The nanocomposite showed a high sustained release, and the release rate in the neutral environment (pH 7.4) was remarkably higher than in acidic media (pH 5.8). The new nanocomposite carrier showed high encapsulation efficiency to Cip (about 98 %). The study was developed by investigating external magnetic effects on the release rate, which lead to an increase in the release rate. The kinetics studies confirmed the diffusion mechanism for Cip release in all experimental media. The Cip-loaded nanocomposite carriers showed antibacterial activity against E. coli and S. aureus.

Synergistic antibacterial activity of carvacrol loaded chitosan nanoparticles with Topoisomerase inhibitors and genotoxicity evaluation

The increasing prevalence of antibiotic resistant bacteria is a significant healthcare crisis with substantial socioeconomic impact on global community. The development of new antibiotics is both costly and time-consuming prompting the exploration of alternative solutions such as nanotechnology which represents opportunities for targeted drug delivery and reduced MIC. However, concerns have arisen regarding genotoxic effects of nanoparticles on human health necessitating an evaluation of nanoparticle induced DNA damage. This study aimed to investigate the antibacterial potential of already prepared, characterized chitosan nanoparticles loaded with carvacrol and their potential synergism with Topoisomerase II inhibitors against S. aureus, E. coli and S. typhi using agar well diffusion, microdilution and checkerboard method. Genotoxicity was assessed through comet assay. Results showed that both alone and drug combinations of varying concentrations exhibited greater zones of inhibition at higher concentrations. Carvacrol nanoparticles combined with ciprofloxacin and doxorubicin significantly reduced MIC compared to the drugs used alone. The MIC50 values for ciprofloxacin were 35.8 µg/ml, 48.74 µg/ml, 35.57 µg/ml while doxorubicin showed MIC50 values of 20.79 µg/ml, 34.35 µg/ml, 25.32 µg/ml against S. aureus, E. coli and S. typhi respectively. The FICI of ciprofloxacin and doxorubicin with carvacrol nanoparticles found ≤ 0.5 Such as 0.44, 0.44,0.48 for ciprofloxacin and 0.45, 0.45, 0.46 for doxorubicin against S. aureus, E. coli and S. typhi respectively revealed the synergistic effect. The analysis of comet assay output images showed alteration of DNA at high concentrations. Our results suggested that carvacrol nanoparticles in combination with Topoisomerase inhibitors may prevent and control the emergence of resistant bacteria with reduced dose.

Targeted delivery of a short antimicrobial peptide (CM11) against Helicobacter pylori gastric infection using concanavalin A-coated chitosan nanoparticles

Helicobacter pylori is the cause of most cases of stomach ulcers and also causes some digestive cancers. The emergence and spread of antibiotic-resistant strains of H. pylori is one of the most important challenges in the treatment of its infections. The present study aims to develop a concanavalin A (ConA) coated chitosan (CS) nanocarrier-based drug delivery for the targeted release of peptides to the site of H. pylori infection. Accordingly, chitosan was used as an encapsulating agent for CM11 peptide delivery by applying ionotropic gelation method. Con-A was used for coating CS nanoparticles to target H. pylori. The CS NPs and ConA-CS NPs were characterized by FTIR, dynamic light scattering (DLS), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The MIC of CM11-loaded ConA-CS NPs against H. pylori SS1 strain was analyzed in vitro. In order to evaluate the treatment efficiency in vivo, a gastric infection model of H. pylori SS1 strain was established in mice and histopathological studies and IL-1β cytokine assay were performed. Based on the results, the size frequency for CS NPs and ConA-CS NPs was about 200 and 350 nm, respectively. The prepared CM11-loaded ConA-CS NPs exhibited antibacterial activity against H. pylori SS1 strain with a concentration of 32 µg/ml. The highest healing process was observed in synthesized CM11-loaded ConA-CS NPs treatments and a significant decrease in IL-1β was observed. Our findings highlight the potential of chitosan nanoparticles as a drug delivery vehicle in the treatment of gastric infection model of H. pylori SS1 strain.

Polysaccharide-based nanoassemblies: From synthesis methodologies and industrial applications to future prospects

Polysaccharides, due to their remarkable features, have gained significant prominence in the sustainable production of nanoparticles (NPs). High market demand and minimal production cost, compared to the chemically synthesised NPs, demonstrate a drive towards polysaccharide-based nanoparticles (PSNPs) benign to environment. Various approaches are used for the synthesis of PSNPs including cross-linking, polyelectrolyte complexation, and self-assembly. PSNPs have the potential to replace a wide diversity of chemical-based agents within the food, health, medical and pharmacy sectors. Nevertheless, the considerable challenges associated with optimising the characteristics of PSNPs to meet specific targeting applications are of utmost importance. This review provides a detailed compilation of recent accomplishments in the synthesis of PSNPs, the fundamental principles and critical factors that govern their rational fabrication, as well as various characterisation techniques. Noteworthy, the multiple use of PSNPs in different disciplines such as biomedical, cosmetics agrochemicals, energy storage, water detoxification, and food-related realms, is accounted in detail. Insights into the toxicological impacts of the PSNPs and their possible risks to human health are addressed, and efforts made in terms of PSNPs development and optimising strategies that allow for enhanced delivery are highlighted. Finally, limitations, potential drawbacks, market diffusion, economic viability and future possibilities for PSNPs to achieve widespread commercial use are also discussed.

Hyaluronic Acid-Coated Chitosan/Gelatin Nanoparticles as a New Strategy for Topical Delivery of Metformin in Melanoma

Metformin is a multipotential compound for treating diabetes II and controlling hormonal acne and skin cancer. This study was designed to enhance metformin skin penetration in melanoma using nanoparticles containing biocompatible polymers. Formulations with various concentrations of chitosan, hyaluronic acid, and sodium tripolyphosphate were fabricated using an ionic gelation technique tailored by the Box-Behnken design. The optimal formulation was selected based on the smallest particle size and the highest entrapment efficiency (EE%) and used in ex vivo skin penetration study. In vitro antiproliferation activity and apoptotic effects of formulations were evaluated using MTT and flow cytometric assays, respectively. The optimized formulation had an average size, zeta potential, EE%, and polydispersity index of 329 ± 6.30 nm, 21.94 ± 0.05 mV, 64.71 ± 6.12%, and 0.272 ± 0.010, respectively. The release profile of the optimized formulation displayed a biphasic trend, characterized by an early burst release, continued by a slow and sustained release compared to free metformin. The ex vivo skin absorption exhibited 1142.5 ± 156.3 μg/cm² of metformin deposited in the skin layers for the optimized formulation compared to 603.2 ± 93.1 μg/cm² for the free metformin. Differential scanning calorimetry confirmed the deformation of the drug from the crystal structure to an amorphous state. The attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared results approved no chemical interaction between the drug and other ingredients of the formulations. According to the MTT assay, metformin in nanoformulation exhibited a higher cytotoxic effect against melanoma cancer cells than free metformin (IC₅₀: 3.94 ± 0.57 mM vs. 7.63 ± 0.26 mM, respectively, P < 0.001). The results proved that the optimized formulation of metformin could efficiently decrease cell proliferation by promoting apoptosis, thus providing a promising strategy for melanoma therapy.

Design, physicochemical characterisation, and in vitro cytotoxicity of cisplatin-loaded PEGylated chitosan injectable nano / sub-micron crystals

The study aimed to develop cisplatin-loaded PEGylated chitosan nanoparticles. The optimal batch of cisplatin-loaded PEGylated chitosan nanoparticles had a + 49.9 mV zeta potential, PDI of 0.347, and % PDI of 58.9. Nanoparticle zeta size was 741.4 z. d.nm, the size in diameter was 866.7 ± 470.5 nm, and nanoparticle conductivity in colloidal solution was 0.739 mS/cm. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) revealed that cisplatin-loaded PEGylated chitosan nanoparticles had sharp endothermic peaks at temperatures at 168.6 °C. The thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) showed the weight loss of cisplatin-loaded PEGylated chitosan nanoparticles, which was observed as 95% at 262.76 °C. XRD investigation on cisplatin-loaded PEGylated chitosan nanoparticles exhibited distinct peaks at 2θ as 9.7°, 20.4°, 22.1°, 25.3°, 36.1°, 38.1°, 39.5°, 44.3°, and 64.5°, confirming crystalline structure. The ¹H NMR analysis showed the fingerprint region of cisplatin-loaded PEGylated chitosan nanoparticles as 0.85, 1.73, and 1.00 ppm in the proton dimension and de-shielded proton peaks appeared at 3.57, 3.58, 3.58, 3.59, 3.65, 3.67, 3,67, 3,67, 3.70, 3.71, 3.77, 3.78 and 4.71 ppm. The ¹³C NMR spectrum showed specified peaks at 63.18, 69.20, and 70.77 ppm. The FT-IR spectra of cisplatin loaded PEGylated nanoparticles show the existence of many fingerprint regions at 3186.52, 2931.68, 1453.19, 1333.98, 1253.71, 1085.19, 1019.60, 969.98, 929.53, 888.80, 706.13, and 623.67 cm^-1. The drug release kinetics of cisplatin loaded PEGylated chitosan nanoparticles showed zero order kinetics with 48% of drug release linearity fashion which has R² value of 0.9778. Studies on the MCF-7 ATCC human breast cancer cell line in vitro revealed that the IC50 value 82.08 µg /mL. Injectable nanoparticles had good physicochemical and cytotoxic properties. This method is novel since the application of the PEGylation processes leads to an increased solubility of chitosan nanoparticles at near neutral pH.

Intelligent Jellyfish-type Janus Nanoreactor Targeting Synergistic Treatment of Bacterial Infections

Infections caused by multidrug-resistant bacteria continue to pose a serious threat to human health, and therefore it is important to explore the availability of antimicrobial drugs and modalities. Herein, jellyfish-type irregular mesoporous iron oxide nanoreactors containing ciprofloxacin, Janus Fe₃O₄@mSiO₂@Cip nanoparticles (JFmS@Cip NPs), were developed for pH-responsive synergistic antimicrobial therapy in a microacidic environment. Compared with the use of symmetric nanocarriers, the asymmetric decoration on both sides of the particles allows different components to act on bacteria, Fe₃O₄ NPs have good magnetic and peroxidase-like catalytic activity, and the antibiotic ciprofloxacin can kill bacteria efficiently. Notably, due to the synergistic effect between different components of Janus particles, in vitro antibacterial experiments showed that JFmS@Cip NPs can kill bacteria efficiently at low concentrations, reaching an antibacterial rate of 99.6%. JFmS@Cip NPs combine multiple antibacterial properties that can be used to improve the therapeutic efficacy of current nanomedicines against drug-resistant bacteria.

Prospect of nanomaterials as antimicrobial and antiviral regimen

In recent years studies of nanomaterials have been explored in the field of microbiology due to the increasing evidence of antibiotic resistance. Nanomaterials could be inorganic or organic, and they may be synthesized from natural products from plant or animal origin. The therapeutic applications of nano-materials are wide, from diagnosis of disease to targeted delivery of drugs. Broad-spectrum antiviral and antimicrobial activities of nanoparticles are also well evident. The ratio of nanoparticles surface area to their volume is high and that allows them to be an advantageous vehicle of drugs in many respects. Effective uses of various materials for the synthesis of nanoparticles impart much specificity in them to meet the requirements of specific therapeutic strategies. The potential therapeutic use of nanoparticles and their mechanisms of action against infections from bacteria, fungi and viruses were the focus of this review. Further, their potential advantages, drawbacks, limitations and side effects are also included here. Researchers are characterizing the exposure pathways of nano-medicines that may cause serious toxicity to the subjects or the environment. Indeed, societal ethical issues in using nano-medicines pose a serious question to scientists beyond anything.

Synthesis of L-methionine-loaded chitosan nanoparticles for controlled release and their in vitro and in vivo evaluation

Therapeutically popular controlled release-enabling technology has forayed into the nutrition sector. Polymer coated forms of L-methionine used in soy protein diets, and its intermediate metabolite, S-adenosyl-L-methionine, used in myriad of medical conditions have proved more efficacious over (highly catabolized) free forms. In this premier study, L-methionine-loaded chitosan nanoparticles (M-NPs) were synthesized using ionic gelation method and their efficacy was evaluated. Biophysical characterization of the NPs was done using a Nanopartica SZ 100 analyser, transmission electron microscopy, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The M-NPs were spherical and smooth and 218.9 ± 7.4 nm in size and in vitro testing confirmed the controlled release of methionine. A 60-days feeding trial in L. rohita fish fingerlings was conducted. A basal diet suboptimal (0.85%) in methionine was provided with one of the supplements as under: none (control), 0.8% chitosan NPs (0.8% NPs), 1.2% L-methionine (1.2% M) (crystalline free form), 0.6% M-NPs and 1.2% M-NPs. While the addition of 0.6% M-NPs to the basal diet complemented towards meeting the established dietary requirement and resulted in significantly highest (P < 0.05) growth and protein efficiency and sero-immunological test scores (serum total protein, serum globulin, serum albumin: globulin ratio, phagocytic respiratory burst/NBT reduction and lysozyme activity), 1.2% supplementation in either form (free or nano), for being 0.85% excess, was counterproductive. Liver transaminases and dehydrogenases corroborated enhanced growth. It was inferred that part of the methionine requirement in nano form (M-NPs) can confer intended performance and health benefits in animals relying on plant proteins-based diets limiting in this essential amino acid. The study also paves the way for exploring chitosan NPs-based sustained delivery of amino acids in human medical conditions.

Functional nano-systems for transdermal drug delivery and skin therapy

Transdermal drug delivery is one of the least intrusive and patient-friendly ways for therapeutic agent administration. Recently, functional nano-systems have been demonstrated as one of the most promising strategies to treat skin diseases by improving drug penetration across the skin barrier and achieving therapeutically effective drug concentrations in the target cutaneous tissues. Here, a brief review of functional nano-systems for promoting transdermal drug delivery is presented. The fundamentals of transdermal delivery, including skin biology and penetration routes, are introduced. The characteristics of functional nano-systems for facilitating transdermal drug delivery are elucidated. Moreover, the fabrication of various types of functional transdermal nano-systems is systematically presented. Multiple techniques for evaluating the transdermal capacities of nano-systems are illustrated. Finally, the advances in the applications of functional transdermal nano-systems for treating different skin diseases are summarized.

Development and characterization of trans-anethole-containing solid lipid microparticles: antiinflammatory and gastroprotective effects in experimental inflammation

The present study prepared, optimized, and characterized solid lipid microparticles that contained trans-anethole (SLMAN), evaluated their antiinflammatory activity in acute and chronic inflammation models, and investigated their effects on the gastric mucosa in arthritic rats. The microparticles were obtained by a hot homogenization process and characterized by physicochemical analyses. The acute inflammatory response was induced by an intradermal injection of 0.1 ml of carrageenan solution (200 μg) in the hind paw. The rats were treated orally with a single dose of SLMAN 1 h before induction of the inflammatory response. The chronic inflammatory response was induced by the subcutaneous application of 0.1 ml of complete Freund's adjuvant suspension (500 µg) in the hind paw. SLMAN was orally administered, starting on the day of arthritis induction, and continued for 21 days. The results showed that SLMAN was obtained with good encapsulation efficiency. Treatment with SLMAN at doses of 25 and 50 mg/kg was as effective as trans-anethole (AN) at a dose of 250 mg/kg on acute and chronic inflammatory responses. Histological analyses showed that treatment with SLMAN did not aggravate lesions in the gastric mucosa in arthritic rats. These results indicated that treatment with SLMAN at a dose that was 5-10 times lower than non-encapsulated AN exerted an inhibitory effect on acute and chronic inflammatory responses, suggesting the better bioavailability and efficacy of microencapsulated AN without aggravating lesions in the gastric mucosa in arthritic rats.

Advances in chitin-based nanoparticle use in biodegradable polymers: A review

Chitin-based nanoparticles are polysaccharide materials that can be produced from a waste stream of the seafood industry: crustacean shells. These nanoparticles have received exponentially growing attention, especially in the field of medicine and agriculture owing to their renewable origin, biodegradability, facile modification, and functionality adjustment. Due to their exceptional mechanical strength and high surface area, chitin-based nanoparticles are ideal candidates for reinforcing biodegradable plastics to ultimately replace traditional plastics. This review discusses the preparation methods for chitin-based nanoparticles and their applications. Special focus is on biodegradable plastics for food packaging making use of the features that can be created by the chitin-based nanoparticles.

Cytotoxic and Bactericidal Effects of Inhalable Ciprofloxacin-Loaded Poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline) Nanoparticles with Traces of Zinc Oxide

The bactericidal effects of inhalable ciprofloxacin (CIP) loaded-poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline) (PEtOx) nanoparticles (NPs) with traces of zinc oxide (ZnO) were investigated against clinical strains of the respiratory pathogens Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. CIP-loaded PEtOx NPs retained their bactericidal activity within the formulations compared to free CIP drugs against these two pathogens, and bactericidal effects were enhanced with the inclusion of ZnO. PEtOx polymer and ZnO NPs did not show bactericidal activity alone or in combination against these pathogens. The formulations were tested to determine the cytotoxic and proinflammatory effects on airway epithelial cells derived from healthy donors (NHBE), donors with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD, DHBE), and a cell line derived from adults with cystic fibrosis (CFBE41o-) and macrophages from healthy adult controls (HCs), and those with either COPD or CF. NHBE cells demonstrated maximum cell viability (66%) against CIP-loaded PEtOx NPs with the half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) value of 50.7 mg/mL. CIP-loaded PEtOx NPs were more toxic to epithelial cells from donors with respiratory diseases than NHBEs, with respective IC₅₀ values of 0.103 mg/mL for DHBEs and 0.514 mg/mL for CFBE41o- cells. However, high concentrations of CIP-loaded PEtOx NPs were toxic to macrophages, with respective IC₅₀ values of 0.002 mg/mL for HC macrophages and 0.021 mg/mL for CF-like macrophages. PEtOx NPs, ZnO NPs, and ZnO-PEtOx NPs with no drug were not cytotoxic to any cells investigated. The in vitro digestibility of PEtOx and its NPs was investigated in simulated lung fluid (SLF) (pH 7.4). The analysed samples were characterized using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and UV-Vis spectroscopy. Digestion of PEtOx NPs commenced one week following incubation and was completely digested after four weeks; however, the original PEtOx was not digested after six weeks of incubation. The outcome of this study revealed that PEtOx polymer could be considered an efficient drug delivery carrier in respiratory linings, and CIP-loaded PEtOx NPs with traces of ZnO could be a promising addition to inhalable treatments against resistant bacteria with reduced toxicity.

PEG-PLGA nanoparticles for encapsulating ciprofloxacin

Antibiotic medications have been found to hinder the success of regenerative endodontic treatment due to the rapid degradation of the drug, and the acidic nature of ciprofloxacin (CIP) can be harmful to stem cells of the apical papilla (SCAPs), the cells responsible for regeneration. In this study, a nanocarrier system was used for controlled drug release for longer drug activity and less cytotoxicity to the cells. CIP was loaded in poly (ethylene glycol) methyl ether-block-poly (lactide-co-glycolide) (PEG-PLGA) nanoparticles (NPs) with an ion-pairing agent. The NPs demonstrated a monodispersed spherical morphology with a mean diameter of 120.7 ± 0.43 nm. The encapsulation efficiency of the CIP-loaded PEG-PLGA NPs was 63.26 ± 9.24%, and the loading content was 7.75 ± 1.13%. Sustained CIP release was achieved over 168 h and confirmed with theoretical kinetic models. Enhanced NP bactericidal activity was observed against Enterococcus faecalis. Additionally, CIP-loaded PEG-PLGA NPs had a low cytotoxic effect on SCAPs. These results suggest the use of a nanocarrier system to prolong the antibiotic activity, provide a sterile environment, and prevent reinfection by the bacteria remaining in the root canal during regenerative endodontic treatment.

Chitosan loaded RNA polymerase inhibitor nanoparticles increased attenuation in toxin release from Streptococcus pneumonia

Background

Multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacterial infections have become an emerging health concern around the world. Antibiotics resistance among S. pneumoniae strains increased recently contributing to increase in incidence of pneumococcal infection. This necessitates the discovery of novel antipnemococcal such as compound C3-005 which target the interaction between RNA polymerase and σ factors. Chitosan nanoparticles (CNPs) exhibited antibacterial activity including S. pneumonia. Therefore, the aims of the current investigation were to formulate CNPs loaded with C3-005 and characteristic their antimicrobial properties against S. pneumonia.

Methods

The CNPs and C3-005 loaded CNPs were produced utilizing ionic gelation method, and their physicochemical characteristics including particle size, zeta potential, polydispersity index (PDI), encapsulation efficiency (EE%), and in vitro release profile were studied. Both differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) were used for chemical characterization. The synthesized NPs' minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) was determined using killing assay and broth dilution method, and their impact on bacteria induced hemolysis were also studied.

Results

The NPs encapsulating C3-005 were successfully prepared with particle size of 343.5 nm ± 1.3, zeta potential of 29.8 ± 0.37, and PDI of 0.20 ± 0.03. 70 % of C3-005 were encapsulated in CNPs and sustained release pattern of C3-005 from CNPs was revealed by an in vitro release study. CNPs containing C3-005 exhibited higher antipnomcoccal activity with MIC₅₀ of 30 µg/ml when compared with C3-005 and empty CNPs alone. The prepared C3-CNPs showed a reduction of bacterial hemolysis in a concentration-related (dependent) manner and was higher than C3-005 alone.

Conclusions

The findings of this study showed the potential for using C3-005 loaded CNPs to treat pneumococcal infection.

Synergistic antimicrobial effect of the combination of beta-lactam antibiotics and chitosan derivative on multidrug-resistant bacteria

Dissemination of multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria with CTX-M-type extended-spectrum β-lactamases (blaCTX-M) has become the greatest challenge in public health care. This study aimed to investigate the synergistic antibacterial potential of N-alkylaminated chitosan nanoparticles (CNPs) combined with conventional β-lactam antibiotics (BLAs) against multidrug-resistant pathogen with blaCTX-M gene. The results of this study showed that the developed nano-formulation resensitized the studied E. coli MDR strain (E001) to ampicillin (AMP) and piperacillin (PIP) by causing a 1000-10,000-fold decrease in their MIC values (5000-50,000 mg/L to 5 mg/L). The conjugation of CNPs with cefoxitin (FOX) and ceftazidime (CAZ) showed a comparatively lower synergistic inhibitory effect owing to the higher susceptibility (MIC value = 0.5 mg/L-5 mg/L) of E001 to these antibiotics. The results indicate that CNPs could be effectively employed as an additive to augment the antibacterial effect of the BLAs for which MDR strains exhibit higher MIC values.

Bioengineered Ciprofloxacin-Loaded Chitosan Nanoparticles for the Treatment of Bovine Mastitis

Mastitis is the most devastating economic disease in dairy cattle. Mastitis in dairy cattle frequently occurs during the dry period or during early lactation. Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus)are the main causative agents of mastitis in India. S. aureus can form microabscesses in the udder and develop a subclinical form of mastitis. This bacterial property hinders an effective cure during the lactation period. Antimicrobials used for treatments have a short half-life at the site of action because of frequent milking; thereforethey are unable to maintain the desired drug concentration for effective clearance of bacteria. We demonstrated the potential of ciprofloxacin-encapsulated nanocarriersthat can improve the availability of drugs and provide an effective means for mastitis treatment. These drug-loaded nanoparticles show low toxicity and slow clearance from the site of action. Antimicrobial activity against clinical strains of E. coli and S. aureus showed that the zone of inhibition depended on the dose (0.5 mg to 2 mg/mL nanoparticle solution from 11.6 to 14.5 mm and 15 to 18 mm). These nanoparticles showed good antimicrobial activity in broth culture and agar diffusion assay against bacteria.

Preparation and Characterization of Salsalate-Loaded Chitosan Nanoparticles: In Vitro Release and Antibacterial and Antibiofilm Activity

The controlled-release characteristic of drug delivery systems is utilized to increase the residence time of therapeutic agents in the human body. This study aimed to formulate and characterize salsalate (SSL)-loaded chitosan nanoparticles (CSNPs) prepared using the ionic gelation method and to assess their in vitro release and antibacterial and antibiofilm activities. The optimized CSNPs and CSNP-SSL formulation were characterized for particle size (156.4 ± 12.7 nm and 132.8 ± 17.4 nm), polydispersity index (0.489 ± 0.011 and 0.236 ± 132 0.021), zeta potential (68 ± 16 mV and 37 ± 11 mV), and entrapment efficiency (68.9 ± 2.14%). Physicochemical features of these nanoparticles were characterized using UV-visible and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction pattern. Scanning electron microscopy studies indicated that CSNPs and CSNP-SSL were spherical in shape with a smooth surface and their particle size ranged between 200 and 500 nm. In vitro release profiles of the optimized formulations showed an initial burst followed by slow and sustained drug release after 18 h (64.2 ± 3.2%) and 48 h (84.6 ± 4.23%), respectively. Additionally, the CSNPs and CSNP-SSL nanoparticles showed a sustained antibacterial action against Staphylococcus aureus (15.7 ± 0.1 and 19.1 ± 1.2 mm) and Escherichia coli (17.5 ± 0.8 and 21.6 ± 1.7 243 mm). Interestingly, CSNP-SSL showed better capability (89.4 ± 1.2% and 95.8 ± 0.7%) than did CSNPs in inhibiting antibiofilm production by Enterobacter tabaci (E2) and Klebsiella quasipneumoniae (SC3). Therefore, CSNPs are a promising dosage form for sustained drug delivery and enhanced antibacterial and antibiofilm activity of SSL; these results could be translated into increased patient compliance.

Recent advancements and perspective of ciprofloxacin-based antimicrobial polymers

In recent years, microbial pathogens, which are major sources of infections, have become a widespread concern across the world. The number of deaths caused by infectious diseases is continually rising, according to World Health Organization records. Antimicrobial resistance, particularly resistance to several drugs, is steadily growing in percentages of organisms. Ciprofloxacin is a second-generation fluoroquinolone with significant antimicrobial activity and pharmacokinetic characteristics. According to studies, many bacteria are resistant to the antibiotic ciprofloxacin. In this article, we look into polymers as ciprofloxacin macromolecular carriers with a wide range of antibacterial activity. We also discuss the latter form of coupling, in which ciprofloxacin and polymers are covalently bonded. This article also discusses the use of antimicrobial polymers in combination with ciprofloxacin in a various sectors. The current review article provides an overview of publications in the last five years on polymer loaded or modified with ciprofloxacin having applications in numerous sectors.

The Influence of Drugs Solubilities and Chitosan-TPP Formulation Parameters on the Mean Hydrodynamic Diameters and Drugs Entrapment Efficiencies into Chitosan-TPP Nanoparticles

Chitosan is a natural, biocompatible polymer. The aim of this work was to study the influence of drug solubility in 2% v/v acetic acid, formulation parameters, on mean hydrodynamic (MHD) diameters and drug entrapment efficiencies (% EE) into chitosan-TPP nanoparticles (NPs). Drugs of different aqueous solubilities with nearly similar molecular weights were chosen and admixed at several concentrations in 2% acetic acid at different chitosan concentrations and at fixed chitosan to TPP concentrations/volumes ratios. The NPs were freeze-dried, and the supernatants were utilized to determine % EE. Theophylline- and antipyrine-loaded NPs showed the best short-term physical stability in terms of MHD diameters. Antipyrine-loaded NPs possessed the larger MHD diameters, while vitamin C-loaded NPs showed the smallest ones. The relationships between the ratio of drug concentration relative to their solubilities in acetic acid were almost linear for antipyrine and vitamin C-loaded NPs when plotted against and the MHD diameters of NPs, and linear for antipyrine- and theophylline-loaded NPs when plotted against % EE with antipyrine NPs possessing the highest % EE. However, vitamin C- and propylthiouracil-loaded NPs exhibited curvilinear patterns with comparatively lower % EE. The concentration of chitosan, drug solubility in dispersion medium, and the ratio of the concentration of admixed drug relative to its solubility in dispersion medium were found critical in determining % EE and MHD diameters of NPs. It was evident that drugs with extremely low or high solubilities in dispersion medium resulted in low % EE when admixed at both low and high concentrations.

In vitro cytocompatibility assessment and antibacterial effects of quercetin encapsulated alginate/chitosan nanoparticle

The present work aims at evaluating the in vitro biocompatibility, antibacterial activity and antioxidant capacity of the fabricated and optimized Alginate/Chitosan nanoparticles (ALG/CSNPs) and quercetin loaded Alginate/Chitosan nanoparticles (Q-ALG/CSNPs) with an improved biological efficacy on the hydrophobic flavonoid.The physicochemical properties were determined by TEM and FTIR analysis. The nanoparticles evaluated for the encapsulation of quercetin exerted % encapsulation efficiency (EE) that varied between 76 and 82.4 % and loading capacity (LC) from 31 to 46.5 %. Potential cytotoxicity of the ALG/CSNPs and Q-ALG/CSNPs upon L929 fibroblast cell line was evaluated by MTT reduction Assay and expressed as % cell viability. The in vitro antibacterial property was studied by well diffusion method against gram-positive bacteria Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 25925) and gram-negative bacteria Escherichia coli (ATCC 25923). The inhibitory efficacy by scavenging free radical intermediates was evaluated by 1,1, diphenyl 2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay. The results of in vitro cytotoxicity showed biocompatibility towards L929 cells. Quercetin loaded Alginate/Chitosan nanoparticles inhibited the growth of microorganisms than pure quercetin. The 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging results have shown a high level of antioxidant property for encapsulated Quercetin in Alginate/Chitosan nanoparticles compared to free Quercetin. The findings of our study suggest that the developed ALG/CSNPs and Q-ALG/CSNPs possess the prerequisites and be proposed as a suitable system for delivering quercetin with enhanced therapeutic effectuality.

Comparison of Nozzle-Based and Nozzle-Free Electrospinning for Preparation of Fast-Dissolving Nanofibers Loaded with Ciprofloxacin

The study aimed to prepare ciprofloxacin-loaded polyvinylpyrrolidone electrospun nanofibers for oral drug delivery, using a conventional nozzle-based and a lab-built nozzle-free electrospinning equipment. To produce nanofibers, electrospinning is the process most often used. However, from the industry’s point of view, conventional electrospinning does not have sufficiently high productivity. By omitting the nozzle, productivity can be increased, and so the development of nozzle-free processes is worthwhile. In this study, a solution of ciprofloxacin and polyvinylpyrrolidone was electrospun under similar conditions, using both single-nozzle and nozzle-free methods. The two electrospinning methods were compared by investigating the morphological and physicochemical properties, homogeneity, in vitro drug release, and cytotoxicity. The stability of the nanofibers was monitored from different aspects in a 26 month stability study. The results showed that the use of the nozzle-free electrospinning was preferable due to a higher throughput, improved homogeneity, and the enhanced stability of nanofiber mats, compared to the nozzle-based method. Nevertheless, fast dissolving nanofibers loaded with poorly water-soluble ciprofloxacin were produced by both electrospinning methods. The beneficial properties of these nanofibers can be exploited in innovative drug development; e.g., nanofibers can be formulated into orodispersible films or per os tablets.

Efficient epidermal delivery of antibiotics by self-assembled lecithin/chitosan nanoparticles for enhanced therapy on epidermal bacterial infections

The treatment for epidermal bacterial infections has become a primary healthy concern, producing a significant therapeutic challenge. Here we present a facile strategy to fabricate lecithin/chitosan nanoparticles (LCNPs) for efficient epidermal drug delivery over epidermal bacterial infections. The central rotatable composite design method was used for the optimization of the preparation, and that the optimal size (212.63 ± 1.95 nm) was obtained via analysis of variance (ANOVA). The prepared CIP-LCNPs show an average diameter of 325.9 ± 7.4 nm and a zeta potential of 26.6 ± 1.2 mV. Antibiotics can be well encapsulated in LCNPs and its release kinetics is studied with cumulative release of 93.81 ± 2.05 % for 48 h. The hemolytic activity, cytotoxicity, and skin irritation are further investigated. The zones of inhibition are 2.16 ± 0.04 cm and 2.92 ± 0.03 cm for Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus, respectively. Moreover, in vitro permeation studies demonstrate that LCNPs can increase the accumulation of antibiotics in the epidermis with retention ratio 2-3 fold higher than commercial formulations. The in vivo result over epidermal-infected wound demonstrates the superior therapeutic effects of LCNPs. The developed LCNPs represent an important advance in fabricating therapeutic materials for enhanced therapy over epidermal bacterial infections.

Development and Optimization of Ciprofloxacin HCl-Loaded Chitosan Nanoparticles Using Box–Behnken Experimental Design

Various chitosan (CS)-based nanoparticles (CS-NPs) of ciprofloxacin hydrochloride (CHCl) have been investigated for therapeutic delivery and to enhance antimicrobial efficacy. However, the Box–Behnken design (BBD)-supported statistical optimization of NPs of CHCl has not been performed in the literature. As a result, the goal of this study was to look into the key interactions and quadratic impacts of formulation variables on the performance of CHCl-CS-NPs in a systematic way. To optimize CHCl-loaded CS-NPs generated by the ionic gelation process, the response surface methodology (RSM) was used. The BBD was used with three factors on three levels and three replicas at the central point. Tripolyphosphate, CS concentrations, and ultrasonication energy were chosen as independent variables after preliminary screening. Particle size (PS), polydispersity index (PDI), zeta potential (ZP), encapsulation efficiency (EE), and in vitro release were the dependent factors (responses). Prepared NPs were found in the PS range of 198–304 nm with a ZP of 27–42 mV. EE and drug release were in the range of 23–45% and 36–61%, respectively. All of the responses were optimized at the same time using a desirability function based on Design Expert® modeling and a desirability factor of 95%. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of the improved formula against two bacterial strains, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus, was determined. The MIC of the optimized NPs was found to be decreased 4-fold compared with pure CHCl. The predicted and observed values for the optimized formulation were nearly identical. The BBD aided in a better understanding of the intrinsic relationship between formulation variables and responses, as well as the optimization of CHCl-loaded CS-NPs in a time- and labor-efficient manner.

Nano delivery systems to the rescue of ciprofloxacin against resistant bacteria "E. coli; P. aeruginosa; Saureus; and MRSA" and their infections

Ciprofloxacin (CIP) a broad-spectrum antibiotic, is used extensively for the treatment of diverse infections and diseases of bacteria origin, and this includes infections caused by E. coli; P. aeruginosa; S. aureus; and MRSA. This extensive use of CIP has therefore led to an increase in resistance by these infection causing organisms. Nano delivery systems has recently proven to be a possible solution to resistance to these organisms. They have been applied as a strategy to improve the target specificity of CIP against infections and diseases caused by these organisms, thereby maximising the efficacy of CIP to overcome the resistance. Herein, we proffer a brief overview of the mechanisms of resistance; the causes of resistance; and the various approaches employed to overcome this resistance. The review then proceeds to critically evaluate various nano delivery systems including inorganic based nanoparticles; lipid-based nanoparticles; capsules, dendrimers, hydrogels, micelles, and polymeric nanoparticles; and others; that have been applied for the delivery of CIP against E. coli; P. aeruginosa; S. aureus; and MRSA infections. Finally, the review highlights future areas of research, for the optimisation of various nano delivery systems, to maximise the therapeutic efficacy of CIP against these organisms. This review confirms the potential of nano delivery systems, for addressing the challenges of resistance to caused by E. coli; P. aeruginosa; S. aureus; and MRSA to CIP.

Investigation of the antibacterial and biofilm inhibitory activities ofPrangos acaulis(DC.) Bornm in nanoparticulated formulation

Here in, a chitosan-based nanoformulation ofP.acauliswas evaluated for its antibacterial and antibiofilm inhibitory activities against some known food-borne bacteria. The FTIR, FE-SEM, DLS and zeta-potential analysis were performed for confirming loading process, morphological appearance, hydrodynamic diameter and surface charge of the nanoparticles respectively. The results confirmed that, the nanoparticles had semi-spherical shape with the mean hydrodynamic diameter and surface charge of 89.8 ± 5.8 nm and 10.78 ± 2.7 mv respectively. Furthermore, the FTIR analysis approved that the nanoparticles were successfully loaded with ethyl acetate fraction fromP.acaulis. The antibacterial and biofilm inhibitory activities of the nanoformulated fraction were significantly increased against the tested Gram positive strains than free sample. The results also confirmed that the fraction release from the nanoparticles follows a sustained manner release after 30 h in a logarithmic pattern. Based on the obtained results, chitosan based nanoformulation ofP. acauliscan be considered for more evaluations to serve as an alternative natural antibiotic.

Investigation of the effects of antimicrobial and anti-biofilm peptide IDR1018 and chitosan nanoparticles on ciprofloxacin-resistant Escherichia coli

Peptide IDR1018 and chitosan nanoparticles (CNs) showed antimicrobial and anti-biofilm activity against bacteria. In this study, the antimicrobial effects of peptide IDR1018 and CNs were evaluated on 50 clinical isolates of uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) resistant to ciprofloxacin. Ion gelation method was applied for CNs synthesis. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) and dynamic light scattering (DLS) were utilized to evaluate the nanoparticles. Antimicrobial and synergistic activity of peptide IDR1018 and CNs with ciprofloxacin were evaluated by microtiter broth dilution method. The checkerboard test was used to investigate the antimicrobial effects of IDR1018 and CNS in combination with ciprofloxacin. Anti-biofilm effect of ciprofloxacin, peptide IDR1018, and CNs was evaluated using crystal violet method. Fourteen (28%), 21 (42%), and 15 (30%) of clinical isolates produced strong, moderate, and weak biofilm, respectively. The CNs were spherical and uniform under electron microscopy with an average diameter of 246 nm. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values were 16-128, 20-40, and 375-750 (µg/ml) for ciprofloxacin, peptide IDR1018, and CNs, respectively. Fractional inhibitory concentration (FIC) analysis indicated a synergistic effect of ciprofloxacin in combination with peptide IDR1018, but in combination with CNs, this antibiotic showed an additive effect. Our results revealed that peptide IDR1018 and CNs have antimicrobial properties on UPEC isolates. Biofilm inhibition and biofilm eradication of clinical isolate were shown by peptide IDR1018 and CNs in a concentration-dependent manner. The antimicrobial agents alone and in combination decreased the number of viable bacteria in the biofilms. Therefore, these components seem to be a treating approach against biofilm-forming UPEC isolates.

Crab (Charybdis natator) exoskeleton derived chitosan nanoparticles for the in vivo delivery of poorly water-soluble drug: Ibuprofen

The study aims to extract and purify chitosan (CS) from the exoskeleton of crab (C. natator) and develop ibuprofen (IBU) encapsulated CS nanoparticles (IBU-CSNPs). Analysis of purified CS revealed characteristic functional and crystallinity peaks. Moreover, morphological analysis of prepared IBU-CSNPs showed uniform spherical shape with a size range of 40-100 nm whereas encapsulation efficiency (EE%) and loading capacity (LC%) were estimated to be 68.94 ± 1.61% and 28 ± 1.18% respectively. Further, in vitro release profile of IBU from IBU-CSNPs was observed to be in biphasic form with initial release up to 15 h followed by the sustained release in different test conditions. Further, the effects of purified CS on the viability of RAW264.7 cells exhibited no toxic effects in higher concentrations. Furthermore, fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) conjugated nanoparticles (FITC-IBU-CSNPs) were investigated on in vivo model of adult zebrafish for time-dependent circulation and accumulation of the drug through the nano-carrier system. It was observed that the drug diffusion from the nanoparticles was in a sustained manner throughout the gastrointestinal region which resulted in suppression of inflammation. Overall, this study provides an effective and facile process for preparing a crab CS-based nano-carrier system used for the delivery of IBU in vivo which may help in the curing of prolonged chronic inflammatory diseases. Moreover, it may also help to reduce adverse effects of these drugs in the gastrointestinal tract such as ulcers and bleeding.

Antibacterial activity of chitosan-based nanohybrid membranes against drug-resistant bacterial isolates from burn wound infections

Biocompatible and non-toxic properties of chitosan make it a candidate with excellent application prospects in developing wound dressing conjugate compounds. Six different chitosan-based nanohybrid membranes were evaluated against multidrug-resistant bacterial isolates. Different combinations of chitosan, ciprofloxacin (CIP), biofunctionalized montmorillonite (MMT), and montmorillonite with sulfate chains (SMMT) were provided, and their antibacterial activity was assessed using the colony count method. Totally, 27 drug-resistant isolates, including 6x methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, 7 vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecalis, 4 Acinetobacter baumannii, and 10 Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates were identified from burn wound infections. Chitosan and montmorillonite did not show significant antibacterial effect (p > 0.05), but chitosan/SMMT/CIP was the most effective nanocomposite (p < 0.01). Chitosan-based nanocomposites with ciprofloxacin could effectively reduce the susceptibility of drug-resistant bacterial isolates. Bacterial targeting using nanosystems provides an opportunity for effective antibiotic treatment by improving antibacterial efficacy.

Green synthesis, characterization, antibacterial activity of metal nanoparticles and composite oxides using leaves extract of Ocimum basilicum L

Nanoparticles plays a key role in the development of novel antibacterial substances against various pathogenic microorganisms. These nanoparticles due to their smaller size could be very effective as they can improve the antibacterial activity through lysis of bacterial cell wall. In the present research work, ZnO, MgO, NiO, AlO nanoparticles, and MgNiO, and AlZnO composite oxides were synthesized by green method from Ocimum basilicum leaves extract. The nanoparticles formed were evaluated using FTIR, XRD, EDX, and SEM to confirm the formation of NPs and to determine the morphology, elemental composition, shape and size, composition, and nature of bonds present in the NPs. Further, the NPs were tested for their antibacterial activity. In particular, ZnO NPs showed a good inhibitory effect against Pseudomonas aeruginosa with 20 mm zone of inhibition. Hence, the process reported herein could be optimized for large-scale preparation of NPs.

Different Nanotechnology Approaches for Ciprofloxacin Delivery Against Multidrug-Resistant Microbes

The percentages of organisms exhibiting antimicrobial resistance, especially resistance to multiple antibiotics, are incessantly increasing. Studies investigated that many bacteria are being resistant to ciprofloxacin. This review addresses the current knowledge on nano-based ciprofloxacin delivery approaches to improve its effectiveness and overcome the resistance issues. Ciprofloxacin delivery can be modified by encapsulating with or incorporating in different polymeric nanoparticles such as chitosan, PLGA, albumin, arginine, and other organic and inorganic nanostructure systems. Most of these nano-approaches are promising as an alternative strategy to improve the therapeutic effectiveness of ciprofloxacin in the future.

Nano drug delivery in intracellular bacterial infection treatments

The present work aimed to review the potential mechanisms used by macrophages to kill intracellular bacteria, their entrance to the cell, and mechanisms of escape of cellular immunity and applications of various nanoparticles. Since intracellular bacteria such as Mycobacterium and Brucella can survive in host cells and can resist the lethal power of macrophages, they can cause chronic disease or recur in 10-30% of cases in improved patients Nano drug-based therapeutics are promising tools for treating intracellular bacteria and preventing recurrence of the disease caused by these bacteria. In addition, among their unique features, we can mention the small size and the ability of these compounds to purposefully reach the target location.

Characterization of cisplatin-loaded chitosan nanoparticles and rituximab-linked surfaces as target-specific injectable nano-formulations for combating cancer

The present study was carried out to develop cisplatin-loaded chitosan nanoparticles (CCNP) and cisplatin-loaded chitosan nanoparticle surface linked to rituximab (mAbCCNP) as targeted delivery formulations. The two formulations (CCNP and mAbCCNP) exhibited significant physicochemical properties. The zetapotential (ZP) values of CCNP and mAbCCNP were 30.50 ± 5.64 and 26.90 ± 9.09 mV, respectively; while their particle sizes were 308.10 ± 1.10 and 349.40 ± 3.20 z.d.nm, respectively. The poly dispersity index (PDI) of CCNP was 0.257 ± 0.030 (66.6% PDI), while that of mAbCCNP was 0.444 ± 0.007 (57.60% PDI). Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) revealed that CCNP had endothermic peaks at temperatures ranging from 135.50 to 157.69 °C. A sharp exothermic peak was observed at 95.79 °C, and an endothermic peak was observed at 166.60 °C. The XRD study on CCNP and mAbCCNP revealed distinct peaks at 2θ. Four peaks at 35.38°, 37.47°, 49.29°, and 59.94° corresponded to CCNP, while three distinct peaks at 36.6°, 49.12°, and 55.08° corresponded to mAbCCNP. The in vitro release of cisplatin from nanoparticles followed zero order kinetics in both CCNP and mAbCCNP. The profile for CCNP showed 43.80% release of cisplatin in 6 h (R2 = 0.9322), indicating linearity of release with minimal deviation. However, the release profile of mAbCCNP showed 22.52% release in 4 h (R2 = 0.9416), indicating linearity with sustained release. In vitro cytotoxicity studies on MCF-7 ATCC human breast cancer cell line showed that CCNP exerted good cytotoxicity, with IC50 of 4.085 ± 0.065 µg/mL. However, mAbCCNP did not elicit any cytotoxic effect. At a dose of 4.00 µg/mL cisplatin induced early apoptosis and late apoptosis, chromatin condensation, while it produced secondary necrosis at a dose of 8.00 µg/mL. Potential delivery system for cisplatin CCNP and mAbCCNP were successfully formulated. The results indicated that CCNP was a more successful formulation than mAbCCNP due to lack of specificity of rituximab against MCF-7 ATCC human breast cancer cells.

Formulation and Characterization of Tobramycin-Chitosan Nanoparticles Coated with Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles

Herein we describe the preparation, characterization and the antibacterial effect of Tobramycin-chitosan nanoparticles (TOB-CS NPs) coated with zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs). Four formulations of TOB-CS NPs (A-D) were prepared to study the effect of experimental variables on the NPs behavior. Two formulations of ZnO NPs were prepared using the solvothermal and the precipitation methods (ZnO₁ and ZnO₂), and then characterized. TOB-CS NPs (Formula d) was coated with the ZnO₁. Moreover, the antibacterial activity of TOB-CS NPs, ZnO NPs and the coated nanoparticles against S. aureus and E. coli was examined. Changing the variables in preparing TOB-CS NPs resulting in variabilities in sizes (297.6–1116.3 nm), charges (+8.29–+39.00 mV), entrapment (51.95–90.60%). Further, TOB release was sustained over four days. ZnO NPs have sizes of 47.44 and 394.4 nm and charges of −62.3 and 89.4 mV when prepared by solvothermal and precipitation technique, respectively. Coated TOB-CS NPs had a size of 342 nm, a charge of +4.39 and released 100 µg/ mL of the drug after four days. The antimicrobial activity of TOB-CS NPs was lower than free TOB against S. aureus and E. coli. The coated NPs showed higher antimicrobial effect in comparison to formula D and ZnO₁. In conclusion, coating TOB-CS NPs with ZnO NPs exhibited a great antibacterial effect that may be sustained for days.

Fabrication of moxifloxacin HCl-loaded biodegradable chitosan nanoparticles for potential antibacterial and accelerated cutaneous wound healing efficacy

AIM

This work aims to formulate topical hybrid gel containing chitosan-coated moxifloxacin (MXF) HCl nanoparticles (NPs) with enhanced antibacterial and healing activity.

METHODS

MXF HCl NPs prepared by the ionic gelation method were loaded onto a hybrid chitosan carbomer gel. Size analysis of the prepared NPs was performed using SEM and Zeta-sizer. Further characterisation was done using Fourier transforms infra-red spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). Prepared gel was evaluated for its in vitro drug release, biocompatibility, antibacterial activity, and stability studies under storage conditions. In-vivo wound healing was measured by observing percentage reduction in wound.

RESULTS

NPs have 359 ± 79 nm mean particle size, 31.01 mV zeta potential with 0.008 polydispersity index (PD1), 63.5% drug entrapment and 83 ± 3.5% drug release at pH 5.5. Hybrid chitosan carbomer gel showed good biocompatibility, antibacterial, in-vivo wound healing properties and stable properties.

CONCLUSIONS

NP-loaded hybrid gel can be an effective treatment for acute and challenged topical wounds.

Antifungal Carvacrol Loaded Chitosan Nanoparticles

The increased prevalence and incidence of fungal infections, of which Candida albicans represents one of the most life-threatening organisms, is prompting the scientific community to develop novel antifungal molecules. Many essential oils components are attracting attention for their interesting antifungal activities. Given the chemical and physical characteristics of these compounds, the use of appropriate nanodelivery systems is becoming increasingly widespread. In this study, chitosan nanoparticles were prepared using an ionic gelation procedure and loaded with the phenolic monoterpene carvacrol. After a bioassay guided optimization, the best nanoparticle formulation was structurally characterized by means of different spectroscopic (UV, FTIR and DLS) and microscopy techniques (SEM) and described for their functional features (encapsulation efficiency, loading capacity and release kinetics). The antifungal activity of this formulation was assayed with different Candida spp., both in planktonic and biofilm forms. From these studies, it emerged that the carvacrol loaded nanoparticles were particularly active against planktonic forms and that the antibiofilm activity was highly dependent on the species tested, with the C. tropicalis and C. krusei strains resulting as the most susceptible.

Effect of antibiotic-loaded chitosan nanodroplets on Enterococci isolated from chronic ulcers of the lower limbs

Aim: To investigate the effect of a new platform of nanocarriers, called nanodroplets (NDs), to enhance the in vitro activity of vancomycin (Vm), against bacterial colonies isolated from chronic ulcers of the lower limbs. Materials & methods: Oxygen-loaded nanodroplets (OLNDs) or oxygen-free nanodroplets (OFNDs) were loaded with Vm (Vm-OLNDs and Vm-OFNDs). MIC and minimal bactericidal concentrations were evaluated for Vm, OLNDs and OFNDs loaded with Vm, OLNDs and OFNDs. Results & conclusion: Nanodroplets, either with or without oxygen, appeared as a suitable platform of antibiotic nanocarriers to enhance the antibacterial effects of Vm against Enterococci, with a decrease in both MIC and minimal bactericidal concentration against Vm-resistant Enterococci strains.