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Santos CC, Marinho DA, Neiva HP, Costa MJ. Propulsive forces in human competitive swimming: a systematic review on direct assessment methods. Sports Biomech 2024; 23:1263-1283. [PMID: 34369855 DOI: 10.1080/14763141.2021.1953574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2021] [Accepted: 07/05/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Human propulsive forces are a key-factor to enhance swimming performance, but there is scarce knowledge when using direct assessments. The aim of this review was to analyse the evidence about human propulsive forces in competitive swimming measured by direct assessment methods. A search up to 30 June 2020 was performed in Web of Science, PubMed, and Scopus databases. The Downs and Black Quality Assessment Checklist was used to assess the quality index (QI) of the included studies. Out of 2530 screened records, 35 articles met the inclusion criteria. Tethered-swimming and differential pressure sensors allow directly measure propulsive forces. Cross-sectional designs measured peak and mean propulsive force during the front crawl stroke and including men/boys (≥15 years-old) at different competitive levels were mostly reported. Men are more able to show higher propulsive forces than women counterparts. Short- and long-term effects were observed while using dry-land and in-water training programmes. The magnitude of propulsive force is dependent on the type of assessment method, swimming stroke, number of body limbs and gender. While the short-term effects supporting the different training programmes lead to an increase in propulsive force, there is a lack of long-term evidence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catarina C Santos
- Department of Sport Sciences, University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
- Research Center in Sports Sciences, Health Sciences and Human Development (CIDESD), Vila Real, Portugal
| | - Daniel A Marinho
- Department of Sport Sciences, University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
- Research Center in Sports Sciences, Health Sciences and Human Development (CIDESD), Vila Real, Portugal
| | - Henrique P Neiva
- Department of Sport Sciences, University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
- Research Center in Sports Sciences, Health Sciences and Human Development (CIDESD), Vila Real, Portugal
| | - Mário J Costa
- Research Center in Sports Sciences, Health Sciences and Human Development (CIDESD), Vila Real, Portugal
- Department of Sport Sciences, Polytechnic Institute of Guarda, Guarda, Portugal
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Pinto MP, Marinho DA, Neiva HP, Barbosa TM, Morais JE. Insights on the Selection of the Coefficient of Variation to Assess Speed Fluctuation in Swimming. J Funct Morphol Kinesiol 2024; 9:129. [PMID: 39189214 PMCID: PMC11348039 DOI: 10.3390/jfmk9030129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2024] [Revised: 07/18/2024] [Accepted: 07/23/2024] [Indexed: 08/28/2024] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to compare swimming speed and speed fluctuations in front crawl between swimmers of different performance levels using discrete variables against statistical parametric mapping (SPM). The sample was composed of 34 male swimmers divided into three groups: (i) group #1-recreational swimmers; (ii) group #2-competitive swimmers aged 12 to 14 years; (iii) group #3-competitive swimmers aged 15 to 17 years. Swimming speed and speed fluctuations (calculated based on four different conditions) were used as discrete variables. Using these discrete variables, ANOVA one-way was used to verify differences between groups, and Bonferroni post-hoc correction for pairwise comparison whenever suitable. SPM (with similar statistical tests) was used to analyze the swimming speed and fluctuation as a continuous variable. Overall, both statistical approaches revealed significant differences (p < 0.001) in swimming speed and speed fluctuations. However, as discrete variables (in four different conditions), the speed fluctuation was not able to detect significant differences between groups #2 and #3. Conversely, SPM was more sensitive and did yield significant differences between these two groups. Therefore, researchers and coaches should be aware that the speed fluctuation as a discrete variable may not identify differences in swimming speed fluctuations when the average value between groups is marginal. On the other hand, SPM was more sensitive in analyzing all groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mafalda P. Pinto
- Department of Sport Sciences, University of Beira Interior, 6201-001 Covilhã, Portugal (D.A.M.); (H.P.N.)
- Research Centre in Sports, Health and Human Development (CIDESD), 6201-001 Covilhã, Portugal
| | - Daniel A. Marinho
- Department of Sport Sciences, University of Beira Interior, 6201-001 Covilhã, Portugal (D.A.M.); (H.P.N.)
- Research Centre in Sports, Health and Human Development (CIDESD), 6201-001 Covilhã, Portugal
| | - Henrique P. Neiva
- Department of Sport Sciences, University of Beira Interior, 6201-001 Covilhã, Portugal (D.A.M.); (H.P.N.)
- Research Centre in Sports, Health and Human Development (CIDESD), 6201-001 Covilhã, Portugal
| | - Tiago M. Barbosa
- Department of Sport Sciences, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, 5300-253 Bragança, Portugal;
- Research Centre for Active Living and Wellbeing (LiveWell), Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, 5300-253 Bragança, Portugal
| | - Jorge E. Morais
- Department of Sport Sciences, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, 5300-253 Bragança, Portugal;
- Research Centre for Active Living and Wellbeing (LiveWell), Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, 5300-253 Bragança, Portugal
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Price T, Cimadoro G, S Legg H. Physical performance determinants in competitive youth swimmers: a systematic review. BMC Sports Sci Med Rehabil 2024; 16:20. [PMID: 38238793 PMCID: PMC10797935 DOI: 10.1186/s13102-023-00767-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2022] [Accepted: 07/06/2023] [Indexed: 01/22/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Youth swimming performance is determined by several physiological, biomechanical and anthropometric characteristics. This review aimed to identify physical performance determinants of youth swimming performance, assessing strength, power, anaerobic, aerobic and body composition measures. ̇ METHODS: Searches were conducted in electronic databases (PubMed and Web of Science) using keywords relating to swimming and physiological measures, supplemented by citation searching of similar reviews. A total of 843 studies were identified in the initial search. The following inclusion criteria were used: participants were competitive/trained swimmers; swimming time-trial or event was conducted; data was provided on one or more physiological parameters; study was published in English and peer-reviewed. A total of 43 studies met the inclusion criteria. Risk of bias was assessed using Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) checklist. RESULTS Cross-sectional studies scored between 4-8 and randomised-controlled trials scored 8-9 on their respective JBI checklists. Youth swimming performance was determined by muscle strength, muscle power, lean body mass, anaerobic and aerobic metabolism measures in most studies, where improved performance values of these variables were conducive to swimming performance. Body fat percentage did not have a clear relationship in youth swimming performance. CONCLUSIONS Findings of this review suggest that greater levels of muscle strength, muscle power and lean body mass are favourable in swimming performance, with muscle strength and muscle power particularly beneficial for start and turn performance. Anaerobic and aerobic metabolism measures were good determinants of swimming performance, with middle- and long-distance events more influenced by the latter. Body fat percentage has a nuanced relationship with swimming performance, where further investigation is required. Findings were inconsistent across studies, potentially due to unidentified confounding factors. KEY POINTS • Greater muscular strength and power qualities, anaerobic and aerobic capacities, and lean body mass are conducive to swimming performance. • Body fat percentage has a nuanced relationship with swimming performance. • Practitioners should consider general strength and power training as a useful tool to enhance performance in their youth competitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Todd Price
- Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences, St Mary's University Twickenham, Twickenham, England
| | - Giuseppe Cimadoro
- Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences, St Mary's University Twickenham, Twickenham, England
| | - Hayley S Legg
- Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences, St Mary's University Twickenham, Twickenham, England.
- School of Education and Applied Sciences, University of Gloucestershire, Gloucester, England.
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Strzała M, Sokołowski K, Wądrzyk Ł, Staszkiewicz R, Kryst Ł, Żegleń M, Krężałek P, Maciejczyk M. Oxygen uptake kinetics and biological age in relation to pulling force and 400-m front crawl performance in young swimmers. Front Physiol 2023; 14:1229007. [PMID: 37869719 PMCID: PMC10587410 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2023.1229007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2023] [Accepted: 09/18/2023] [Indexed: 10/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: The study aimed to assess differences in the biological age (BA) of 13-year-old swimmers and show their ability, as biologically younger-late mature or older-early mature, to develop fast 60-s oxygen uptake (V ˙ O 2 ) kinetics and tethered swimming strength. Furthermore, the interplay between swimming strength, V ˙ O 2 , and 400-m front crawl race performance was examined. Methods: The study involved 36 competitive young male swimmers (metrical age: 12.9 ± 0.56 years). Depending on BA examination, the group was divided into early-mature (BA: 15.8 ± 1.18 years, n = 13) and late-mature (BA: 12.9 ± 0.60 years, n = 23) participants, especially for the purpose of comparing tethered swimming indices, i.e., average values of force (F ave) and V ˙ O 2 (breath-by-breath analysis) kinetic indices, measured simultaneously in 1-min tethered front crawl swimming. From the 400-m racing stroke rate, stroke length kinematics was retrieved. Results: In the 1-min tethered front crawl test, early-mature swimmers obtained higher results of absolute values of V ˙ O 2 and F ave. Conversely, when V ˙ O 2 was present relatively to body mass and pulling force (in ml∙min-1∙kg-1∙N-1), late-mature swimmers showed higher O 2 relative usage. Late-mature swimmers generally exhibited a slower increase in V ˙ O 2 during the first 30 s of 60 s. V ˙ O 2 , F ave, BA, and basic swimming kinematic stroke length were significantly interrelated and influenced 400-m swimming performance. Conclusion: The 1-min tethered swimming test revealed significant differences in the homogeneous calendar age/heterogeneous BA group of swimmers. These were distinguished by the higher level of V ˙ O 2 kinetics and pulling force in early-mature individuals and lower efficiency per unit of body mass per unit of force aerobic system in late-mature peers. The higher V ˙ O 2 kinetics and tethered swimming force were further translated into 400-m front crawl speed and stroke length kinematics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marek Strzała
- Department of Water Sports, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, University of Physical Education, Kraków, Poland
| | - Kamil Sokołowski
- Department of Water Sports, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, University of Physical Education, Kraków, Poland
| | - Łukasz Wądrzyk
- Department of Water Sports, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, University of Physical Education, Kraków, Poland
| | - Robert Staszkiewicz
- Department of Biomechanics, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, University of Physical Education, Kraków, Poland
| | - Łukasz Kryst
- Department of Anthropology, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, University of Physical Education, Kraków, Poland
| | - Magdalena Żegleń
- Pain Research Group, Institute of Psychology, Jagiellonian University in Krakow, Kraków, Poland
| | - Piotr Krężałek
- Department of Physiotherapy, Faculty of Motor Rehabilitation, University of Physical Education, Kraków, Poland
| | - Marcin Maciejczyk
- Department of Physiology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, University of Physical Education, Kraków, Poland
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Francisco H, Emilio BD, Gonjo T, Daniel JSG. Differences in seasonal best times between short and long course in freestyle events in Spanish age-group swimmers. J Sports Sci 2023:1-8. [PMID: 37356108 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2023.2227540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2022] [Accepted: 06/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/27/2023]
Abstract
Swimmers perform better times in short course due to the greater numbers of turns; however, the differences between short (SC) and long course (LC) depending on the swimmers' age and sex are unclear. The main aim of this study was to analyse the differences in seasonal best times between SC and LC in freestyle events in relation to age and sex. Seasonal best times performed in SC and LC in each freestyle swimming event of 100 top national Spanish swimmers in two seasons were included in this analysis. A three-way ANOVA was performed to analyse the effect of the three factors on the difference between SC and LC times. Senior swimmers presented the greatest differences between SC and LC in comparison with other age-groups. Age-groups 11-12 and 14-16 showed similar SC and LC differences; nevertheless, these differences are significant (p < 0.05) with the 13-14 age-group. Generally, from 14 to 15 years old the differences between SC and LC increased. The result of this study indicates that the differences between SC and LC are unsteady throughout the swimming career. Thus, when considering swimmers' performance using both SC and LC results, SC results should be adjusted depending on the age of the swimmers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hermosilla Francisco
- Sport Training Laboratory, Faculty of Sports Sciences, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Toledo, Spain
- Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida Y la Naturaleza, Universidad Nebrija, Madrid, Spain
- Department of Physical Activity and Sports Science, Alfonso X El Sabio University, Madrid, Spain
| | - Beltrán-Díaz Emilio
- Sport Training Laboratory, Faculty of Sports Sciences, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Toledo, Spain
| | - Tomohiro Gonjo
- Department of Rehabilitation & Sport Sciences, Bournemouth University, Poole, UK
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Sokołowski K, Bartolomeu RF, Barbosa TM, Strzała M. V ˙ O 2 kinetics and tethered strength influence the 200-m front crawl stroke kinematics and speed in young male swimmers. Front Physiol 2022; 13:1045178. [PMID: 36505048 PMCID: PMC9730280 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2022.1045178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2022] [Accepted: 11/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: The aim of this research was to examine the relationship between the fast component of oxygen consumption developed in 1-min V ˙ O 2 and force indices both measured in tethered swimming test and to assess the influence of the gathered indices on speed and swimming kinematics in 200-m front crawl race. Methods: Forty-eight male swimmers (aged 13.5 ± 0.9 years old) participated in this study. Testing included 1) 1-min all-out front crawl tethered swimming while oxygen consumption (breath by breath) and tethered forces were measured, 2) 200-m front crawl race-like swimming featuring kinematic analysis, and 3) biological age (BA) examination. Results: During the 1-min all-out tethered swimming test, a linear increase in oxygen consumption was observed. There were moderate to high partial correlations between particular periods of seconds in the 1-min V ˙ O 2 : 31-60, 41-60, and 51-60 and F max, F ave , and I ave of tethered swimming, while 41-60 and 51-60 V ˙ O 2 were moderately to highly interrelated with all the swimming speed indices and SI. The swimming speed indices significantly interplayed with SL, SI, F max, F ave , and I ave . Partial correlations were computed with BA control. Conclusion: The ability of reaching a high level of V ˙ O 2 fast is essential for a swimmer's energy production at short- and middle-distance events. Reaching a high level of V ˙ O 2 significantly determines tethered strength and swimming kinematics. The level of V ˙ O 2 influences the maintenance of a proper pulling force and the stroke technique of front crawl swimming in young male swimmers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kamil Sokołowski
- Department of Water Sports, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, University of Physical Education, Kraków, Poland,*Correspondence: Kamil Sokołowski,
| | - Raul Filipe Bartolomeu
- Department of Sport Sciences and Physical Education, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal,Department of Sports Sciences, Polytechnic of Guarda, Guarda, Portugal,Research Center in Sports Sciences, Health and Human Development (CIDESD), Vila Real, Portugal
| | - Tiago Manuel Barbosa
- Department of Sport Sciences and Physical Education, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal,Department of Sports Sciences, Polytechnic of Guarda, Guarda, Portugal
| | - Marek Strzała
- Department of Water Sports, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, University of Physical Education, Kraków, Poland
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Morais JE, Barbosa TM, Nevill AM, Cobley S, Marinho DA. Understanding the Role of Propulsion in the Prediction of Front-Crawl Swimming Velocity and in the Relationship Between Stroke Frequency and Stroke Length. Front Physiol 2022; 13:876838. [PMID: 35574451 PMCID: PMC9094697 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2022.876838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2022] [Accepted: 04/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: This study aimed to: 1) determine swimming velocity based on a set of anthropometric, kinematic, and kinetic variables, and; 2) understand the stroke frequency (SF)–stroke length (SL) combinations associated with swimming velocity and propulsion in young sprint swimmers. Methods: 38 swimmers (22 males: 15.92 ± 0.75 years; 16 females: 14.99 ± 1.06 years) participated and underwent anthropometric, kinematic, and kinetic variables assessment. Exploratory associations between SL and SF on swimming velocity were explored using two two-way ANOVA (independent for males and females). Swimming velocity was determined using multilevel modeling. Results: The prediction of swimming velocity revealed a significant sex effect. Height, underwater stroke time, and mean propulsion of the dominant limb were predictors of swimming velocity. For both sexes, swimming velocity suggested that SL presented a significant variation (males: F = 8.20, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.40; females: F = 18.23, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.39), as well as SF (males: F = 38.20, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.47; females: F = 83.04, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.51). The interaction between SL and SF was significant for females (F = 8.00, p = 0.001, η2 = 0.05), but not for males (F = 1.60, p = 0.172, η2 = 0.04). The optimal SF–SL combination suggested a SF of 0.80 Hz and a SL of 2.20 m (swimming velocity: 1.75 m s−1), and a SF of 0.80 Hz and a SL of 1.90 m (swimming velocity: 1.56 m s−1) for males and females, respectively. The propulsion in both sexes showed the same trend in SL, but not in SF (i.e., non-significant variation). Also, a non-significant interaction between SL and SF was observed (males: F = 0.77, p = 0.601, η2 = 0.05; females: F = 1.48, p = 0.242, η2 = 0.05). Conclusion: Swimming velocity was predicted by an interaction of anthropometrics, kinematics, and kinetics. Faster velocities in young sprinters of both sexes were achieved by an optimal combination of SF–SL. The same trend was shown by the propulsion data. The highest propulsion was not necessarily associated with higher velocity achievement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge E Morais
- Department of Sport Sciences, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.,Research Center in Sports Health and Human Development (CIDESD), University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
| | - Tiago M Barbosa
- Department of Sport Sciences, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.,Research Center in Sports Health and Human Development (CIDESD), University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
| | - Alan M Nevill
- Faculty of Education, Health, and Wellbeing, University of Wolverhampton, Wolverhampton, United Kingdom
| | - Stephen Cobley
- Discipline of Exercise and Sport Science, Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Daniel A Marinho
- Research Center in Sports Health and Human Development (CIDESD), University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal.,Department of Sport Sciences, University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
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Strzała M, Stanula A, Krężałek P, Sokołowski K, Wądrzyk Ł, Maciejczyk M, Karpiński J, Rejdych W, Wilk R, Sadowski W. Correlations between Crawl Kinematics and Speed with Morphologic, Functional, and Anaerobic Parameters in Competitive Swimmers. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph19084595. [PMID: 35457464 PMCID: PMC9031581 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19084595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2022] [Revised: 04/05/2022] [Accepted: 04/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between a unique complex of predictors and 100 m front crawl race kinematics and swimming speed. In 28 male competitive swimmers (age: 19.6 ± 2.59 years), the following groups of predictors were assessed: (a) the morphologic, (b) the functional upper limb range of motion, and (c) the anaerobic indices of arm-cranking and a series of countermovement jumps. The Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient was calculated to distinguish the predictors and the swimming results. The main finding was that the indices of the power (arm-cranking) and the work (countermovement jump) generated in the anaerobic tests showed a significant and higher correlation with stroke length and stroke index than total body length, upper limb range of motion, or hand and forearm surface area. These results were obtained in accordance with the high swimming economy index relation to clear surface swimming speed. This study reveals that the strength generated by the limbs may represent a predictor of swimming kinematics in a 100 m front crawl performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marek Strzała
- Department of Water Sports, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, University of Physical Education, 31-571 Kraków, Poland; (M.S.); (K.S.)
| | - Arkadiusz Stanula
- Institute of Sport Sciences, Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education, 40-065 Katowice, Poland; (J.K.); (W.R.); (R.W.); (W.S.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +48-207-53-33
| | - Piotr Krężałek
- Department of Physiotherapy, Faculty of Motor Rehabilitation, University of Physical Education, 31-571 Kraków, Poland;
| | - Kamil Sokołowski
- Department of Water Sports, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, University of Physical Education, 31-571 Kraków, Poland; (M.S.); (K.S.)
| | - Łukasz Wądrzyk
- Department of Biomechanics, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Physical Education, 31-571 Kraków, Poland;
| | - Marcin Maciejczyk
- Department of Physiology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, University of Physical Education, 31-571 Kraków, Poland;
| | - Jakub Karpiński
- Institute of Sport Sciences, Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education, 40-065 Katowice, Poland; (J.K.); (W.R.); (R.W.); (W.S.)
| | - Wojciech Rejdych
- Institute of Sport Sciences, Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education, 40-065 Katowice, Poland; (J.K.); (W.R.); (R.W.); (W.S.)
| | - Robert Wilk
- Institute of Sport Sciences, Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education, 40-065 Katowice, Poland; (J.K.); (W.R.); (R.W.); (W.S.)
| | - Wojciech Sadowski
- Institute of Sport Sciences, Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education, 40-065 Katowice, Poland; (J.K.); (W.R.); (R.W.); (W.S.)
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How Anthropometrics of Young and Adolescent Swimmers Influence Stroking Parameters and Performance? A Systematic Review. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph19052543. [PMID: 35270236 PMCID: PMC8909379 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19052543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2022] [Revised: 02/13/2022] [Accepted: 02/17/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of this systematic review was to investigate the relationship between anthropometric characteristics, biomechanical variables and performance in the conventional swimming techniques in young and adolescent swimmers. A database search from 1 January 2001 to 30 June 2021 was done according to the PRISMA statement, with 43 studies being selected for analysis. Those manuscripts were divided in butterfly, backstroke, breaststroke and front crawl techniques as main categories. The results showed the importance of the anthropometric variables for the performance of the young swimmer, although there was a lack of variables common to the studies that analysed the butterfly, backstroke and breaststroke techniques. For the front crawl technique there is a consensus among studies on the advantage of having higher height and arm span values, variables that concurrently with high body mass and lean body mass values, contribute positively to better stroke length and stoke index values.
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10
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Wadrzyk L, Staszkiewicz R, Zeglen M, Kryst L. Relationship between somatic build and kinematic indices of underwater undulatory swimming performed by young male swimmers. INT J PERF ANAL SPOR 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/24748668.2021.1909450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lukasz Wadrzyk
- Department of Biomechanics, University of Physical Education in Krakow, Krakow, Poland
| | - Robert Staszkiewicz
- Department of Biomechanics, University of Physical Education in Krakow, Krakow, Poland
| | | | - Lukasz Kryst
- Department of Anthropology, University of Physical Education in Krakow, Krakow, Poland
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11
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Strzała M, Stanula A, Krężałek P, Rejdych W, Karpiński J, Maciejczyk M, Radecki-Pawlik A. Specific and Holistic Predictors of Sprint Front Crawl Swimming Performance. J Hum Kinet 2021; 78:197-207. [PMID: 34025877 PMCID: PMC8120975 DOI: 10.2478/hukin-2021-0058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of the study was to examine the impact of selected water- and dry-land predictors of 50-m front crawl performance among 27 male swimmers aged 19.3 ± 2.67 years. The following water tests were performed: front crawl tethered arm stroking in a water flume (flow velocity: 0.9 m·s-1) and leg tethered flutter kicking in a swimming pool. Anaerobic tests on dry land included arm cranking and a set of 10 countermovement jumps. The maximal and average forces generated by legs in tethered swimming (Fl max and Fl ave) turned out to be the strongest predictors of sprint swimming aptitude. These values were strongly correlated with total speed (Vtotal50) (r = 0.49, p < 0.05 and r = 0.54, p < 0.01, respectively), start, turn, and finishing speed (VSTF) (r = 0.60, p < 0.01 and r = 0.67, p < 0.01, respectively). The relationship of Fl max and Fl ave with surface speed (Vsurface) was moderate (r = 0.33, non-significant and r = 0.41, p < 0.05, respectively). The maximal force generated by arms (Fa max) during flume tethered swimming significantly influenced Vsurface and Vtotal50 (0.51, p < 0.01 and 0.47, p < 0.05, respectively). Its relationship with VSTF was close to significant (0.36, p = 0.07). Upper and lower limb dry-land tests showed lower and more holistic relationships with the 50-m front crawl race, however, being a good complement to overall fitness assessment. Specific in-water evaluation, especially the newly prepared flutter kicking test, as well as dry-land tests, can be applied to regularly monitor progress in swimming training, and to identify talented swimmers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marek Strzała
- Department of Water Sports; Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, University of Physical Education, Kraków, Poland
| | - Arkadiusz Stanula
- Department of Swimming and Water Rescue; Institute of Sport Sciences, The Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education, Katowice, Poland
| | - Piotr Krężałek
- Department of Physiotherapy; Faculty of Rehabilitation, University of Physical Education, Kraków, Poland
| | - Wojciech Rejdych
- Department of Swimming and Water Rescue; Institute of Sport Sciences, The Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education, Katowice, Poland
| | - Jakub Karpiński
- Department of Swimming and Water Rescue; Institute of Sport Sciences, The Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education, Katowice, Poland
| | - Marcin Maciejczyk
- Department of Physiology and Biochemistry; Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, University of Physical Education, Kraków, Poland
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Oliveira M, Henrique RS, Queiroz DR, Salvina M, Melo WV, Moura Dos Santos MA. Anthropometric variables, propulsive force and biological maturation: A mediation analysis in young swimmers. Eur J Sport Sci 2020; 21:507-514. [PMID: 32268839 DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2020.1754468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Youth swimming performance may be influenced by anthropometric and body composition factors during growth. Propulsive force of the arm (PFA) is highly related to swimming performance as 85-90% of the propulsive power comes from the arms. The current study analyzed the mediating effect of biological maturation on the relationship between anthropometric variables and body composition with PFA in young swimmers. A total of 128 swimmers [boys: n = 53, age = 13.6 (1.8) y; girls: n = 75, age = 12.5 (1.8) y] were evaluated. Propulsive force of the arm was estimated by the tethered swimming test. Anthropometric characteristics (body mass, stature, sitting height, arm span, arm muscle area, %body fat, and fat-free mass) were evaluated. Biological maturation was estimated by the age of peak height velocity. Mediation analyses were performed using the Preacher and Hayes bootstrapping method, adjusted for chronological age and sex. All anthropometric and body composition variables, except %body fat, were positively associated with PFA, being mediated by biological maturation. Indirect effects and 95% confidence intervals were: body mass [.20 (.09-.34)], stature [.22 (.11-.43)], arm span [0.17 (.05-.31)], arm muscle area [.74 (.38-1.19)] and fat free-mass [.17 (.05-.34)]. In conclusion, biological maturation mediated the positive associations between body size and composition and PFA in young swimmers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariana Oliveira
- Department of Physical Education, University of Pernambuco, Recife, Brazil
| | - Rafael S Henrique
- Department of Physical Education, University of Pernambuco, Recife, Brazil.,Department of Physical Education and Sports Science, Centro Acadêmico de Vitoria, Federal University of Pernambuco, Vitória de Santo Anto, Brazil
| | - Daniel R Queiroz
- Department of Physical Education, University of Pernambuco, Recife, Brazil
| | - Marlene Salvina
- Department of Physical Education, University of Pernambuco, Recife, Brazil
| | - Wilson V Melo
- Department of Physical Education and Sports Science, Centro Acadêmico de Vitoria, Federal University of Pernambuco, Vitória de Santo Anto, Brazil
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