Seasonal Variation of Physical Performance and Inter-limb Asymmetry in Professional Cricket Athletes

Change of Direction Asymmetry in Youth Elite Tennis Players: A Longitudinal Study

Longitudinal investigations into the development of inter-limb asymmetry in sports are scarce. This study examined the development of change of direction (COD) asymmetry magnitude in youth elite tennis players. Dominant (overall best performance) and non-dominant (best performance on the other side) scores and COD asymmetry magnitude were quantified annually (up to six years) in 323 male and 235 female players (ages 6 to13 years). Linear mixed effects regression models examined the development of COD performance and asymmetry magnitude according to players' chronological age and sex. Kappa coefficients examined the consistency for the direction of asymmetry across test occasions. Regardless of sex, COD performance significantly improved (p<0.001) while COD asymmetry magnitude significantly decreased (- 0.17±0.87% / year) with increasing chronological age. Regardless of age, males showed significantly lower COD times (- 0.111±0.091 s) and lower COD asymmetry magnitude (- 0.30±1.00%) compared to females. The slight and poor (k-value=0.02-0.00) kappa coefficients for males and females, respectively, highlight the direction specificity of functional asymmetry. These data show that whereas performance of the COD test improved, the magnitude of COD asymmetry declined across chronological age in youth tennis players.

Effect of Sex and Lateral Ankle Sprain History on Dorsiflexion Range Of Motion Asymmetry During the Weight Bearing Lunge Test

Background

Reduced dorsiflexion range of motion (DFROM) which is commonly seen following lateral ankle sprain (LAS) has the potential to influence lower extremity biomechanics which have been linked to increased injury risk in the female athlete. Current research on the effect of sex and LAS history on DFROM is limited.

Hypothesis/Purpose

This study had three aims 1) to determine the effect of sex, leg dominance and LAS history on DFROM, 2) to determine the effect of sex and LAS history on magnitude of DFROM symmetry and 3) to examine the association of sex on direction (whether dominant or non-dominant limb had the higher DFROM) of symmetry.

Study Design

Cross-Sectional Study.

Methods

DFROM was measured bilaterally in 105 recreational athletes all participating in multidirectional sports using the tape measurement method during the weight bearing lunge test (WBLT). A mean of three measurements was used for analysis. A 3-way mixed ANOVA was carried out to determine the interaction between sex, LAS history and leg dominance on DFROM and a 2-way ANOVA for the effect of sex and LAS history on asymmetry. A chi-square test was used to determine the association of sex and direction of asymmetry.

Results

The results indicate no significant effect of sex, LAS history, and leg dominance on DFROM (p=0.65). Main effects were significant for sex and LAS on DFROM. The mean asymmetry for all participants was reported as 12.25±14.76cm. No significant effect of sex and LAS history on magnitude of asymmetry was reported. There was a significant association of sex and direction of asymmetry (χ2(1) = 11.26, p = 0.00). Sixty-five-point two percent of males were shown to have higher DFROM of their non-dominant limb compared to 75% of females who were higher in their dominant limb.

Conclusion

Findings from this study suggest that DFROM is affected by sex and LAS history. While females have increased DFROM compared to males, those with LAS history are more likely to have a decreased DFROM on the involved side. The results also indicate that interlimb asymmetries in DFROM are present in athletes, therefore practitioners should exercise caution when using bilateral comparisons in injury and return to play assessments.

Level of Evidence

2b.

A Novel Case Study Approach to the Investigation of Leg Strength Asymmetry and Rugby League Player's Multidirectional Speed

ABSTRACT

Helme, M, Emmonds, S, Low, C, and Till, K. A novel case study approach to the investigation of leg strength asymmetry and Rugby League player's multidirectional speed. J Strength Cond Res 38(5): 941-947, 2024-Leg strength and multidirectional speed qualities have repeatedly been linked with increased performance during Rugby League (RL) match play and associated with career attainment. However, very little of this evidence for strength has been gained through unilateral measurements with no study available that has examined the impact of strength asymmetry, in this population, on speed qualities in RL players. Therefore, this study examined the association between unilateral strength, and as a novel development, the subject with the most extreme asymmetry was identified for further analysis. Fifty RL players undertook the rear foot elevated split squat 5 repetition maximum, 20-m linear sprint, and modified 505 change of direction test. The mean leg strength for the group was 88.92 ± 12.59 kg; when divided by body mass, the mean relative strength (REL) was 1.03 ± 0.17 kg·kg -1 , and the mean asymmetry was 3.21 ± 5.70%. The subject with the greatest asymmetry (subject A) had an imbalance of 33% and a mean leg strength of 75 kg (REL = 0.78 kg·kg -1 ) and a body mass 1 SD above the group mean. Analysis of the group's data and that of subject A did not indicate that leg strength asymmetry was either frequent or harmful, with respect to speed performance. However, relative leg strength was associated with both improved linear and multidirectional speed. Practitioners are recommended to prioritize the development of relative leg strength and disregard the aspiration for between leg performance symmetry.

The reliability of a linear position transducer for measuring countermovement jump performance in national-level road cyclists

BACKGROUND

Jump tests have applications in fatigue monitoring, training intervention evaluations, and talent identification in cycling populations. Due to competitive cycling's inherent travel demands, linear position transducers (LPTs) are suitable for assessing jump performance in this population as they are a mobile and validated technology. Understanding the reliability and sensitivity of LPTs in assessing jump performance in cycling populations is required to support the development of sports science protocols. Using an LPT, this study aimed to determine the reliability and sensitivity of countermovement jump (CMJ) variables in road cyclists.

METHODS

Ten national-level male road cyclists performed three maximal CMJ trials twice per week for two weeks, with an LPT measuring force, power, velocity, repetition rate, vertical distance, and concentric time from each trial. Using the mean and best CMJ results from three trials per testing session, the upper limit 90% confidence interval for the coefficient of variation (CV) and smallest worthwhile change (SWC) determined inter-day and -week reliability (CV ≤ 10%) and sensitivity (acceptable sensitivity = CV ≤ SWC) for CMJ variables.

RESULTS

Mean power and force, velocity (mean and peak), vertical distance (VD), and concentric time had acceptable inter-day and -week reliability when using either the mean or best CMJ results (CV upper limit 90% confidence interval range = 3.54-10.13%). Moreover, the CV and SWC were typically lower when based on the mean rather than the best of three CMJ trials. Lastly, poor sensitivity (CV > SWC) was evident for all CMJ variables.

CONCLUSIONS

CMJ-derived mean power and force, velocity (peak and mean), VD, and concentric time have acceptable inter-day and -week reliability when assessed via an LPT in national-level road cyclists. When using an LPT, sports scientists should consider that, while they typically have poor sensitivity, the reliability of CMJ-derived variables improves when expressed as the mean of three trials in national-level road cyclists.

The Effects of Workload Difference Between Limbs in Plyometric and Strength Exercises in Reducing Asymmetry in Change of Direction Ability During Basketball Season

ABSTRACT

Ujaković, F, and Šarabon, N. The effects of workload difference between limbs in plyometric and strength exercises in reducing asymmetry in change of direction ability during basketball season. J Strength Cond Res 37(11): 2282-2288, 2023-The topic of interlimb asymmetries has recently been extensively investigated; despite that, intervention for purpose of reducing them have been narrowly examined. The present study investigated the effects of maximal strength and plyometric resistance training program with 3:1 workload ratio (nondominant to dominant side) on change of direction deficit (CoDdef) asymmetry during the basketball season. Thirty-six highly trained male basketball players (19.3 ± 4.9 years) from different age categories (U-17, U-19, and senior) were divided into 2 groups: the control group ( n = 18) and the intervention group ( n = 18). The intervention group performed once-a-week training that consisted of strength (Bulgarian split squats) and jumping (single-leg countermovement jumps [SLCMJs]) part in which nondominant-to-dominant workload ratio was 3:1 during the 8-week period. Preintervention and postintervention testing included single-leg isometric squat, SLCMJ, 10-m sprint, and 505 test. Analysis of covariance results showed a statistically significant difference with large effect size ( p < 0.05; η2 = 0.26) when preintervention asymmetry was included as covariate. Post hoc analysis showed a statistically significant decrease in mean CoDdef asymmetry between preintervention (11.88%) and postintervention (4.47%) testing ( p < 0.01, effect size [ES] = -1.37). Isometric squat strength increased on nondominant side in the intervention group ( p < 0.05; ES = 0.77). No other performance or asymmetry variable showed significant change. In conclusion, a 3:1 workload of nonspecific movement task in favor of nondominant limb is an effective training strategy to reduce CoDdef asymmetry during basketball season.

Upper-body isometric horizontal strength in game sport athletes

Imagine blocking the opposing defense linemen in American football to protect your quarterback or creating gaps in the opponents' defense by setting blocks as a pivot player in handball. Such movements require a pushing action away from the body with the arms and stabilizing the whole body in different postural positions. Upper-body strength obviously plays an important role during American football and handball as well as in other game sports with opponent contact such as basketball. Yet, the availability of appropriate tests to measure upper-body strength serving sport-specific requirements seems limited. Therefore, a whole-body setup to measure isometric horizontal strength in game sport athletes was developed. The purpose of the study was to verify validity and reliability of this setup and present empirical data from game sport athletes. In 119 athletes, isometric horizontal strength was measured in three game-like standing positions (upright, slightly leaning forward and clearly leaning forward), each in three weight-shift conditions (80% of body weight on the left leg, 50/50% on both legs, 80% on the right leg). Also, handgrip strength on both sides was measured in all athletes using a dynamometer. Linear regression indicated that handgrip strength is a significant predictor of upper-body horizontal strength in female (β = 0.70, p = 0.043) but not in male athletes (β = 0.31, p = 0.117). As an expertise-related factor, linear regression indicated that the number of years played at the top level is a predictor of the upper-body horizontal relative strength measure (β = 0.05, p = 0.03). Reliability analyses showed high levels of within-test reliability (ICC > 0.90) as well as test-retest reliability between two separate measurements (r > 0.77). The results indicate that the setup used in this study could be a valid tool for measuring performance-relevant upper-body horizontal strength in different game-like positions in professional game sport athletes.

Seasonal Variation of Physical Performance, Bilateral Deficit, and Interlimb Asymmetry in Elite Academy Soccer Players: Which Metrics Are Sensitive to Change?

ABSTRACT

Bishop, C, Abbott, W, Brashill, C, Loturco, I, Beato, M, and Turner, A. Seasonal variation of physical performance, bilateral deficit, and interlimb asymmetry in elite academy soccer players: Which metrics are sensitive to change? J Strength Cond Res 37(2): 358-365, 2023-This study aimed to report seasonal variations for (a) physical performance, (b) interlimb asymmetry, and (c) bilateral deficit (BLD) data over the course of a competitive soccer season and determine which metrics are sensitive to change. This study used a repeated-measures observational design for 19 under-20, elite, academy, soccer players (age: 17.58 ± 0.61 years; height: 1.81 ± 0.09 m; body mass: 74.36 ± 7.58 kg), who conducted bilateral and single-leg countermovement jumps (CMJ and SLCMJ), linear speed (5, 10, 20, and 30-m) and 505 change of direction (COD) speed tests, at pre, mid, and end of season time points. For jump tests, jump height, reactive strength index modified, time to takeoff, and countermovement depth metrics were monitored, with interlimb asymmetry and the BLD also calculated for each. Significant improvements ( p < 0.05) in performance were evident in all fitness tests: CMJ (effect size [ES]: 0.61 to 1.03), SLCMJ (ES: 0.60 to 2.25), linear speed (ES: -0.54 to -1.96), and COD speed (ES: -0.68 to -1.14). Significant reductions in asymmetry (ES: -0.68 to -1.07) and significant increases in the BLD (ES: 1.15 to 1.57) were also evident throughout the season. Additionally, kappa coefficients were used to determine consistency in limb dominance throughout the season, but only poor to fair levels of agreement (kappa: -0.17 to 0.37) were evident, highlighting the fluctuating nature of limb dominance throughout the season. Despite all tests exhibiting meaningful change, the SLCMJ and linear speed showed the most frequent and largest differences in performance, highlighting their usefulness in the ongoing monitoring process of physical capacities in elite male academy players across a competitive soccer season.

Why Sports Should Embrace Bilateral Asymmetry: A Narrative Review

(1) Background: Asymmetry is ubiquitous in nature and humans have well-established bilateral asymmetries in their structures and functions. However, there are (mostly unsubstantiated) claims that bilateral asymmetries may impair sports performance or increase injury risk. (2) Objective: To critically review the evidence of the occurrence and effects of asymmetry and sports performance. (3) Development: Asymmetry is prevalent across several sports regardless of age, gender, or competitive level, and can be verified even in apparently symmetric actions (e.g., running and rowing). Assessments of bilateral asymmetries are highly task-, metric-, individual-, and sport-specific; fluctuate significantly in time (in magnitude and, more importantly, in direction); and tend to be poorly correlated among themselves, as well as with general performance measures. Assessments of sports-specific performance is mostly lacking. Most studies assessing bilateral asymmetries do not actually assess the occurrence of injuries. While injuries tend to accentuate bilateral asymmetries, there is no evidence that pre-existing asymmetries increase injury risk. While training programs reduce certain bilateral asymmetries, there is no evidence that such reductions result in increased sport-specific performance or reduced injury risk. (4) Conclusions: Bilateral asymmetries are prevalent in sports, do not seem to impair performance, and there is no evidence that suggests that they increase injury risk.

Strength Asymmetries Are Muscle-Specific and Metric-Dependent

We investigated if dominance affected upper limbs muscle function, and we calculated the level of agreement in asymmetry direction across various muscle-function metrics of two heterologous muscle groups. We recorded elbow flexors and extensors isometric strength of the dominant and non-dominant limb of 55 healthy adults. Participants performed a series of explosive contractions of maximal and submaximal amplitudes to record three metrics of muscle performance: maximal voluntary force (MVF), rate of force development (RFDpeak), and RFD-Scaling Factor (RFD-SF). At the population level, the MVF was the only muscle function that showed a difference between the dominant and non-dominant sides, being on average slightly (3–6%) higher on the non-dominant side. At the individual level, the direction agreement among heterologous muscles was poor for all metrics (Kappa values ≤ 0.15). When considering the homologous muscles, the direction agreement was moderate between MVF and RFDpeak (Kappa = 0.37) and low between MVF and RFD-SF (Kappa = 0.01). The asymmetries are muscle-specific and rarely favour the same side across different muscle-performance metrics. At the individual level, no one side is more performative than the other: each limb is favoured depending on muscle group and performance metric. The present findings can be used by practitioners that want to decrease the asymmetry levels as they should prescribe specific exercise training for each muscle.

Is the Shape of the Force-Time Curve Related to Performance in Countermovement Jump? A Review

Countermovement jump (CMJ) is frequently used to assess the neuromuscular capacity in athletes and track adaptations to training, typically through outcome variables such as jump height, peak/mean force, power or velocity, and rate of force development. Recently, there has been an increasing interest to analyze the shape of the force-time curve of the CMJ and its relationship to CMJ performance. This aim of the present review was to collect and analyze the available literature pertaining to this topic. One approach to analyze CMJ curve shape is to classify it as "unimodal" or "bimodal," based on the number of force peaks. The difference between athletes showing unimodal and bimodal curves is negligible in terms of jump height, while unimodal curves are associated with higher reactive strength index. Rather than the number of peaks, the most important characteristics that maximizes CMJ height seems to be the temporal alignment of peak force with the instant of the lowest center-of-mass position (i.e., when the jumper transitions from the braking to the propulsive phase). Other than bimodal/unimodal classification, the "shape factor" (the value of force impulse, divided by the area of the rectangular shape drawn around) has been emerging as another approach to assess CMJ curve shape; however, the studies exploring its relationship with performance are few and inconclusive.

The Physical Qualities of Elite Australian Pace Bowlers: Typical Characteristics and Longitudinal Changes in Men and Women

Purpose: To determine whether the most important physical qualities in elite Australian male and female cricket pace bowlers change with age and phase of the cricket season. Methods: An existing longitudinal database (7 cricket seasons) of selected and routinely collected physical testing data from 103 male and 58 female elite Australian pace bowlers age 18–30 years was retrospectively analyzed. Male and female physical testing data from the isometric midthigh pull, 1-repetition-maximum bench pull, run-of-3, and countermovement jump (male only) were analyzed separately by performing linear mixed models on each of the physical qualities. Type III analysis-of-variance tests were conducted to determine if a significant effect existed within the fixed effects of age, season phase, and the age × season phase interaction. Appropriate pairwise comparisons were conducted. Results: Absolute and relative measures of force in the isometric midthigh pull and strength in the 1-repetition-maximum bench pull tests were significantly greater in older male and female pace bowlers. Older male pace bowlers demonstrated significantly faster absolute and relative best run-of-3 times. Conclusions: Most physical qualities across both male and female pace bowlers demonstrated an improvement with age. This is likely due to a training effect and would be anticipated to lead to a gradual enhancement of ball release speed, in accordance with previous research. Future research should look to investigate the relationship between the development of physical qualities and ball release speed among elite male and female pace bowlers.

Inter-limb differences in unilateral countermovement jump height are not associated with the inter-limb differences in bilateral countermovement jump force production

This study aimed to explore the relationship between the inter-limb differences in unilateral countermovement (CMJ) height and the inter-limb differences in bilateral CMJ force production, and to elucidate whether the self-reported preferred leg contributes more to force production than the non-preferred leg. Twenty-three senior basketball players performed in a single session eight unilateral CMJs (four with each leg) and four bilateral CMJs. Impulse, peak force, mean force were recorded during the bilateral CMJ, and jump height during the unilateral CMJ. Small correlations were observed between the inter-limb differences in unilateral CMJ height and the inter-limb asymmetries in bilateral CMJ impulse, peak force, and mean force (p ≥ 0.171; r≤-0.142). The self-reported preferred leg revealed a higher performance in 7 out of 23 participants (Kappa = -0.20) for the unilateral CMJ height, 7 out of 23 participants (Kappa = -0.11) for the bilateral CMJ impulse, 6 out of 23 participants (Kappa = -0.36) for the bilateral CMJ peak force, and 8 out of 23 participants (Kappa = -0.34) for the bilateral CMJ mean force. These results highlight that the asymmetries detected during bilateral CMJs cannot be extrapolated to unilateral CMJs, and that the preferred leg generally contributes less to force production than the non-preferred leg during both bilateral and unilateral CMJs.

Seasonal variation of inter-limb jumping asymmetries in youth team-sport athletes

The main objective of the present study was to provide seasonal variation data for inter-limb asymmetry in youth elite team-sport athletes. Fifty-nine players performed the single-leg countermovement jump (SLCMJ) and the one leg hop for distance (OLHT) tests during pre-season, mid-season and end-season. A repeated-measures analysis of variance was conducted to determine magnitude differences in asymmetry scores between time points. Kappa coefficients (κ) were calculated to determine the levels of agreement for the direction of asymmetry. When comparing inter-limb asymmetry magnitudes across the season, the SLCMJ test showed significantly higher asymmetries at mid-season in comparison with pre-season and end-season (p< 0.01, d= -1.03 for pre to mid; p< 0.01, d= 1.12 for pre to end). However, OLHT inter-limb asymmetry magnitude remained consistent throughout the season (ES range = -0.02 to -0.06). For the direction of asymmetry, levels of agreement ranged from poor to slight in the SLCMJ (k= -0.10 to 0.18) and in the OLHT (k= -0.21 to 0.18). No significant differences were found between mean asymmetry values at any time point or for either test when comparing males and females. In conclusion, jump height asymmetry during the SLCMJ was the only metric to show significant magnitude changes across the season.

Between-session reliability of performance and asymmetry variables obtained during unilateral and bilateral countermovement jumps in basketball players

This study aimed to evaluate the between-session reliability of single-leg performance and asymmetry variables during unilateral and bilateral countermovement jumps (CMJ). Twenty-three basketball players completed two identical sessions which consisted of four unilateral CMJs (two with each leg) and two bilateral CMJs. Mean and peak values of force, velocity and power, impulse, and jump height were obtained separately for each leg using a dual force platform. All performance variables presented an acceptable reliability (CVrange = 4.05-9.98%) with the exceptions of jump height for the unilateral CMJs and mean power, peak velocity, peak power, and impulse for the left leg during the bilateral CMJ (CV≥11.0%). Nine out of 14 variables were obtained with higher reliability during the unilateral CMJ (CVratio≥1.16), and 4 out of 14 during the bilateral CMJ (CVratio≥1.32). Asymmetry variables always showed an unacceptable reliability (ICCrange = 0.15-0.64) and poor/slight levels of agreement in direction (Kapparange = -0.10 to 0.15) for the unilateral CMJ, while an acceptable reliability (ICCrange = 0.74-0.77) and substantial levels of agreement in direction (Kapparange = 0.65 to 0.74) were generally obtained for the bilateral CMJ. These results suggest that single-leg performance can be obtained with higher reliability during the unilateral CMJ, while the bilateral CMJ provides more consistent measures of inter-limb asymmetries.

Inter-Limb Jump Asymmetries and Their Association with Sport-Specific Performance in Young Male and Female Swimmers

This study aimed to examine inter-limb jump asymmetries and their association with sport-specific performance in young swimmers. Thirty-eight (male, n = 19; female, n = 19) regional/national level young swimmers (age: 12.3 ± 1.2 years; height: 159.6 ± 8.2 cm; body mass: 52.5 ± 9.2 kg) participated in this study. Inter-limb asymmetries were assessed for single-leg countermovement jump (_SLCMJ) and single-leg standing long jump (_SLSLJ). Sport-specific performance was evaluated using front crawl (i.e., 50 m and 25 m) and front crawl kick (i.e., 50 m and 25 m). The kappa coefficient revealed a "slight" level of agreement (Κ = 0.156, 0.184, and 0.197 for female, male, and all, respectively) between the direction of asymmetry for _SLCMJ and _SLSLJ, indicating that asymmetries rarely favored the same limb during both tests. A paired sample t-test showed a significant difference (p = 0.025) between asymmetry scores obtained in _SLCMJ and _SLSLJ. No significant difference was found in asymmetry scores between males and females (p = 0.099 to 0.977). Additionally, no association between asymmetry scores and sport-specific performance was observed (p > 0.05). Our findings highlight the independent nature of inter-limb asymmetries derived from _SLCMJ and _SLSLJ among young male and female swimmers. Further, our results suggest no association between jumping asymmetries and sport-specific performance.

Unilateral or Bilateral Standing Broad Jumps: Which Jump Type Provides Inter-Limb Asymmetries with a Higher Reliability?

This study aimed to compare the between-session reliability of performance and asymmetry variables between unilateral and bilateral standing broad jumps (SBJ). Twenty-four amateur basketball players (12 males and females) completed two identical sessions which consisted of four unilateral SBJs (two with each leg) and two bilateral SBJs. Mean and peak values of force, velocity and power, and impulse were obtained separately for each leg using a dual force platform. Inter-limb asymmetries were computed using the standard percentage difference for the unilateral SBJ, and the bilateral asymmetry index-1 for the bilateral SBJ. All performance variables generally presented an acceptable absolute reliability for both SBJs (CV range = 3.65-9.81%) with some exceptions for mean force, mean power, and peak power obtained with both legs (CV range = 10.00-15.46%). Three out of 14 variables were obtained with higher reliability during the unilateral SBJ (CVratio ≥ 1.18), and 5 out of 14 during the bilateral SBJ (CVratio ≥ 1.27). Asymmetry variables always showed unacceptable reliability (ICCrange = -0.40 to 0.58), and slight to fair levels of agreement in their direction (Kappa range = -0.12 to 0.40) except for unilateral SBJ peak velocity [Kappa = 0.52] and bilateral SBJ peak power [Kappa = 0.51]) that showed moderate agreement for both SBJs. These results highlight that single-leg performance variables can be generally obtained with acceptable reliability regardless of the SBJ variant, but the reliability of the inter-limb asymmetries in the conditions examined in the present study is unacceptable to track individual changes in performance.