Response time to stimuli in division I soccer players

Esports experts have a wide gaze distribution and short gaze fixation duration: A focus on League of Legends players

This study investigated the specific gaze control ability of expert players and low-skill players of League of Legends (LoL). Eleven expert and nine low-skill players were divided according to their official ranking. Then, the gaze movement of each participant when performing each task (e.g., easy task and moderate task) while competing against a computer artificial intelligence system was recorded. Experts were found to have a significantly wide horizontal gaze distribution. Additionally, experts had a consistently short gaze fixation duration during the moderate task. These results suggest that a wide horizontal gaze distribution allows experts to obtain information from a wider area. Additionally, the consistently short fixation duration of the experts indicated that they need only a short period to assess information, which is advantageous because large amounts of information need to be processed within a limited time while playing. This specific gaze control ability could be an important factor that contributes to the superior performance of expert LoL players.

Measurement of Simple Reaction Time of the Cyclist in the Laboratory and Natural Environment Condition

The most commonly used reaction time tests within the athlete community require appropriate testing conditions and equipment, most frequently laboratory ones, which are not suitable for testing athletes in their natural environment and do not fully represent athletes' natural capabilities and the influence of the surrounding environment. Therefore, this study's goal is to compare the simple reaction times (SRTs) of cyclists during tests in laboratory conditions and in natural cycling surroundings. The young cyclists (55 participants) took part in the study. The SRT was measured in a quiet laboratory room with the use of the special device. During riding and standing with a bike outdoors, the necessary signal was captured and transmitted by a folic tactile sensor (FTS) and an extra intermediary circuit (both invented by our team member) connected to a muscle activity measurement system (Noraxon DTS Desktop, Scottsdale, AZ, USA). The results showed that external conditions significantly affect the SRT, with it being the longest when riding and the shortest if measured in an isolated laboratory room, but without an effect of gender. Typically, men have a shorter reaction time, but our result supports other observations, where people with an active lifestyle show no sex differentiation in SRT. The proposed FTS with an intermediary circuit allowed us to measure SRT with the use of non-dedicated equipment and avoid buying a new one for a single specific use.

Reactive Task Performance Under Varying Loads in Division I Collegiate Soccer Athletes

This study was conducted to identify whether team-wide or positional differences exist in simple or choice reactivity of collegiate soccer athletes when completed under various loads. Much research exists surrounding the assessment of reaction time in the general population, but given variations in training, little insight exists surrounding how unique and elite populations may differ based upon performance demands and task translatability to training. Reactive performance was assessed using the Dynavision D2 in 24 female soccer players (19.73 ± 1.05 years old) from a team within a power five conference of the National Collegiate Athletic Association. Evaluated loads included two conditions of simple reactivity (no additional load and with a concurrent lower body motor task) and three conditions of choice reactivity (no additional load, with a concurrent lower body motor task, and prolonged durations). Paired t-tests and ANOVAs were used to identify differences in task performance based upon load and positional group. No significant load-based or positional differences existed in measured simple reaction times. Performances in choice reaction tasks across the team were found to be slower when completed across extended durations (p < 0.0001) and faster when completed concurrent with an added balance task (p = 0.0108), as compared to performance under normal conditions. By assessment of positional differences, goalkeepers tended to be slower than other positions in reactivity during choice tasks, despite no differences existing in simple task performance. Given the unique population utilized herein, measured reactivity in different tasks suggests a strong relation to the training demands of soccer, as well as those of goalkeepers as compared to field positions. Findings suggest that sport and positional demands may be substantial contributors to population- and individual-based reactivity performance.

Evaluation of the Pre-Planned and Non-Planed Agility Performance: Comparison between Individual and Team Sports

This study assessed differences in agility performance between athletes of team and individual sports by assessing change-of-direction speed (CODS) as pre-planned agility and reactive agility (RA) as non-planed in different spatial configurations. The study involved 36 individual (sprint, hurdles, jumping, tennis, and judo) and 34 team (soccer, basketball, and handball) athletes. CODS and RA were measured with a light-based reactive training system in a frontal (FR), universal (UN), semicircular (SC), and lateral (LA) design. Lower limb power and sprint performance were also measured in a 10 m single leg jump test and 15 m sprint. Individual athletes showed significantly better performance in three of the eight agility tests: LA-RA, UN-RA, and SC-CODS (p < 0.008, p < 0.036, and p < 0.027, respectively) and were found to present stronger correlations (p < 0.01) between jump test performance and the CODS condition. Team athletes showed stronger associations between sprint performance and the CODS condition. In the RA condition both jump and sprint performance showed stronger correlations in the group of individual athletes. Agility performance as measured by CODS and RA should improve with enhanced of motor proficiency. Finally, the tests applied in this experiment seem to be multidimensional, but require spatio-temporal adjustment for their implementation, so that they meet the requirements of the particular sport.

Validity and reliability of speed tests used in soccer: A systematic review

Introduction

Speed is an important prerequisite in soccer. Therefore, a large number of tests have been developed aiming to investigate several speed skills relevant to soccer. This systematic review aimed to examine the validity and reliability of speed tests used in adult soccer players.

Methods

A systematic search was performed according to the PRISMA guidelines. Studies were included if they investigated speed tests in adult soccer players and reported validity (construct and criterion) or reliability (intraday and interday) data. The tests were categorized into linear-sprint, repeated-sprint, change-of-direction sprint, agility, and tests incorporating combinations of these skills.

Results

In total, 90 studies covering 167 tests were included. Linear-sprint (n = 67) and change-of-direction sprint (n = 60) were studied most often, followed by combinations of the aforementioned (n = 21) and repeated-sprint tests (n = 15). Agility tests were examined fewest (n = 4). Mainly based on construct validity studies, acceptable validity was reported for the majority of the tests in all categories, except for agility tests, where no validity study was identified. Regarding intraday and interday reliability, ICCs>0.75 and CVs<3.0% were evident for most of the tests in all categories. These results applied for total and average times. In contrast, measures representing fatigue such as percent decrement scores indicated inconsistent validity findings. Regarding reliability, ICCs were 0.11–0.49 and CVs were 16.8–51.0%.

Conclusion

Except for agility tests, several tests for all categories with acceptable levels of validity and high levels of reliability for adult soccer players are available. Caution should be given when interpreting fatigue measures, e.g., percent decrement scores. Given the lack of accepted gold-standard tests for each category, researchers and practitioners may base their test selection on the broad database provided in this systematic review. Future research should pay attention to the criterion validity examining the relationship between test results and match parameters as well as to the development and evaluation of soccer-specific agility tests.

Novel use of the Nintendo Wii board as a measure of reaction time: a study of reproducibility in older and younger adults

Background

Reaction time (RT) has been associated with falls in older adults, but is not routinely tested in clinical practice. A simple, portable, inexpensive and reliable method for measuring RT is desirable for clinical settings. We therefore developed a custom software, which utilizes the portable and low-cost standard Nintendo Wii board (NWB) to record RT. The aims in the study were to (1) explore if the test could differentiate old and young adults, and (2) to study learning effects between test-sessions, and (3) to examine reproducibility.

Methods

A young (n = 25, age 20–35 years, mean BMI of 22.6) and an old (n = 25, age ≥65 years, mean BMI of 26.3) study-population were enrolled in this within- and between-day reproducibility study. A standard NWB was used along with the custom software to obtain RT from participants in milliseconds. A mixed effect model was initially used to explore systematic differences associated with age, and test-session. Reproducibility was then expressed by Intraclass Correlation Coefficients (ICC), Coefficient of Variance (CV), and Typical Error (TE).

Results

The RT tests was able to differentiate the old group from the young group in both the upper extremity test (p < 0.001; −170.7 ms (95%CI −209.4;-132.0)) and the lower extremity test (p < 0.001; −224.3 ms (95%CI −274.6;-173.9)). Moreover, the mixed effect model showed no significant learning effect between sessions with exception of the lower extremity test between session one and three for the young group (−35,5 ms; 4.6 %; p = 0.02). A good within- and between-day reproducibility (ICC: 0.76-0.87; CV: 8.5-12.9; TE: 45.7-95.1 ms) was achieved for both the upper and lower extremity test with the fastest of three trials in both groups.

Conclusion

A low-cost and portable reaction test utilizing a standard Nintendo wii board showed good reproducibility, no or little systematic learning effects across test-sessions, and could differentiate between young and older adults in both upper and lower extremity tests.

Relative age effect on the reaction time of soccer players under 13 years old

The relative age effect, which is the advantage obtained by an athlete born closer to the beginning of the selection year, has been shown to be an important variable in the development of soccer players. This study aimed to evaluate the influence of the season of birth on the choice reaction time (CRT) of elite soccer athletes in the under 13 years of age category. Seventy-six athletes participated who were 13.36 ± 0.45 years old. The volunteers were tested with a CRT test, and the results were divided according to the semester of birth (S1 or S2). We conducted a t-test in order to compare the results between groups and a Pearson correlation analysis to verify the associations between variables. The results indicated no differences in reaction time (r= .033 and p = .772) or movement time (r = .0073 and p = .530). It was concluded that for this population, the season of birth does not influence the performance of the capabilities tested.

Reaction time aspects of elite sprinters in athletic world championships

The aim of this study was to quantify world-class sprinters' reaction times as a function of performance level, gender, body height, finalists' heat round development, and age. A database of 100-m sprint results and corresponding reaction times from 1,319 sprinters participating in different International Association of Athletics Federations world championships during the time period 2003-9 was compiled for this investigation. Seiko was the official timekeeper of the world championships in this study. Seiko uses a silent gun system for time initiation and false start detection. Their Slit Video system captures the runners at the finish line up to 2,000 images per second with high-resolution cameras. Our results indicate that there was a significant relationship (p < 0.01) between reaction time and 100 m running time, with a shared variance of 8.5 and 10.8% for males (r = 0.292) and females (r = 0.328), respectively. Reaction times (0.166 ± 0.030 seconds) of males were significantly shorter (p < 0.01) than those for females (0.176 ± 0.034 seconds). No relationship was observed between reaction time and height. Male finalist sprinters had substantially shorter reaction times in the finals (0.142 ± 0.017 seconds) compared with round 1 (0.161 ± 0.024 seconds), round 2 (0.155 ± 0.020 seconds), and the semifinals (0.153 ± 0.022 seconds). Female finalist sprinters obtained their fastest reaction times during the semifinals (0.153 ± 0.018 seconds). The best reaction times were registered at the age of 26-29 years for males (0.150 ± 0.017 seconds) and >30 years for females (0.153 ± 0.020 seconds), but reaction times across different age categories were also positively correlated with 100 m performance (p < 0.05). Considering the findings of this study, the results suggest that sprinters' reacting abilities affect their sprint performance over 100 m. This study provides magnitude estimates for the influence of performance level, gender, body height, finalists' heat round, and age on reaction time among world-class sprinters, which we believe to be of great interest for coaches and athletes in sports involving reacting skills.

Analysis of balance, rapidity, force and reaction times of soccer players at different levels of competition

In the present study we analyzed 12 physical parameters, namely force, static and dynamic balance (both quantified by means of 4 parameters each), rapidity, visual reaction times and acoustic reaction times, over 185 subjects. 170 of them played soccer in teams enrolled in all the ten different Italian soccer leagues. Results show that 6 parameters (out of the 12 analyzed) permit to identify and discriminate top-level players, among those showing the same training frequency. The other parameters are strictly related to training frequency or do not discriminate among players or control subjects (non-athletes), such as visual and acoustic reaction times. Principal component analysis permits to identify 4 clusters of subjects with similar performances, thus representing a useful instrument to characterize the overall ability of players in terms of athletic characteristics, on the basis of their location on the principal component parameters plane.