Associations between Body Segment Mass and Punch, Front Kick, or Countermovement Jump Performance in Military Cadets

Despite the recognized influence of body mass on combat techniques, the relationship between body segment mass (BSM) and combat moves remains unexplored. This study aimed to examine the relationship between the striking arm mass (SAM), kicking leg mass (KLM), and body mass (BM) and the dynamic forces of direct punch (DP), palm strike (PS), elbow strike (ES), front kick (FK), and countermovement jump (CMJ) performance. Sixteen male military cadets (22.3 ± 1.8 years, 181.4 ± 7.0 cm, 82.1 ± 8.5 kg) performed combat techniques, with their performance measured by using a force plate and their body segment mass assessed by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. Spearman's correlation analysis, the Wilcoxon test, and Cohen's d were applied. The results indicated the relationship between the KLM or BM and the FK impulse (r = 0.64, p = 0.01; r = 0.52, p = 0.04, respectively) and CMJ impact force (r = 0.80, p ≤ 0.01; r = 0.70, p ≤ 0.01, respectively). The FK peak and impact forces were moderately correlated with the CMJ jump height (r = 0.74, p ≤ 0.01; r = 0.77, p ≤ 0.01). Moreover, the FK peak force was significantly higher than that for DP, PS, and ES (p ≤ 0.01, d = 3.32; p ≤ 0.01, d = 1.6; and p = 0.013, d = 1.3, respectively). The highest relationship was found between the KLM and the FK impulse; however, the difference in variability explained by the KLM versus the body mass was only 12%. This suggests that knowledge of the BSM did not provide a significantly better estimate of the dynamic forces of the punches and FKs than the knowledge of the BM.

Effects of lower and upper body fatigue in striking response time of amateur karate athletes

In combat sports, strikes or counter-strikes response time (RT) can be related to performance and sporting success. Moreover, training sessions are usually highly fatiguing, which is expected to impair basic skills, such as RT. Thus, this study aimed to investigate the effect of fatigue on punch and kick RTs of karate practitioners. Twelve individuals of both sexes from different levels (three yellow belts, three red belts, two orange belts, two green belts, one brown belt, and one black belt) were selected. Participants were aged 22 ± 3 years old, with a stature of 169.1 ± 6.5 cm, and a body mass of 65.5 ± 10 kg. Six visits were held with each participant. On the first 2 days, the RT of punches and kicks was measured by a validated smartphone app (TReaction). For the subsequent visits, a randomized incremental test for the upper or lower body was adopted as motor fatigue protocol, immediately followed by punches and kicks RT tests, also in random order. For induction of lower and upper body-specific muscle fatigue, the ITStriker app was used, which operates by emitting sound signals transmitted by a smartphone. One-way repeated measures ANOVA was performed, and significance was set at p ≤ 0.05. Regarding the mean punches RT, significant effects between situations for the upper (F_(2,22) = 11.5; ω² = 0.23; p < 0.001) and lower body (F_(2,22) = 14.2; ω² = 0.18; p < 0.001) fatigue protocols were found. The negative effect of the lower body fatigue protocol in punches RT was evident regardless of the order of the tests (punch RT first: Δ = 10.5%; t = 4.4; p < 0.001; d = 1.0; kick RT first: Δ = 11.4%; t = 4.8; p < 0.001; d = 1.1). Regarding mean kicks RT, significant effects were found between situations for the lower (F_(2,22) = 16.6; ω² = 0.27; p < 0.001) but not for the upper (F_(2,22) = 2.3; ω² = 0.02; p = 0.12) body fatigue protocols. Kick RTs were negatively affected by the lower body fatigue protocol regardless of the RT order applied (punch RT first: Δ = 7.5%; t = 3.0; p = 0.01; d = 0.8; kick RT first: Δ = 14.3%; t = 5.7; p < 0.001; d = 1.5). Upper body fatigue does not impair punch or kick RTs. Thus, it is concluded that the specificity of fatigue protocols and striking order should be considered while performing RT demanding techniques in karate practice. Specifically, lower body motor fatigue may impair both kicks and punches RT, which highlights the role of lower limbs in punches performance. Otherwise, upper body motor fatigue seems to induce impairments that are limited to the specific motor actions of this body segment.

Weight Loss and Competition Weight in Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) Athletes

Previous research has demonstrated that professional mixed martial arts (MMA) athletes employ a variety of weight manipulation strategies to compete at given weight classes. Although there is much literature demonstrating weight manipulation methods, minimal research exists analyzing how much weight MMA athletes lose prior to the official weigh-in. Moreover, there is minimal research examining how much weight professional MMA athletes gain between the official weigh-in and competition. Therefore, the purpose of the current study was to analyze weight loss/regain in professional MMA athletes. Data collected from 616 professional MMA athletes (31.1 ± 4.0 yrs.; 177.1 ± 4.7 cm) competing for the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) between 2020 and 2022 were used for the study. The athlete's weight was obtained 72 h, 48 h, and 24 h prior to the official weigh-in, at the official weigh-in, and prior to competition. Random effects analysis was utilized to compare weight at a variety of time points between different weight classes. All statistics were analyzed, and significance was set at p ≤ 0.05. There is a significant (p ≤ 0.05) difference between weight classes and time points in professional MMA. MMA athletes decrease body weight significantly prior to the official weigh-in. MMA athletes increase body weight significantly between official weigh-in and competition. Based on these data, it appears that MMA athletes average a weight loss of nearly 7% within 72 h prior to the official weigh-in. The data also suggest that athletes gain nearly 10% of total weight between the official weigh-in and competition.

Maximum Isometric and Dynamic Strength of Mixed Martial Arts Athletes According to Weight Class and Competitive Level

Mixed martial arts (MMA) athletes must achieve high strength levels to face the physical demands of an MMA fight. This study compared MMA athletes' maximal isometric and dynamic strength according to the competitive level and weight class. Twenty-one male MMA athletes were divided into lightweight professional (LWP; n = 9), lightweight elite (LWE; n = 4), heavyweight professional (HWP; n = 4), and heavyweight elite (HWE; n = 4). The handgrip and isometric lumbar strength tests assessed the isometric strength, and the one-repetition maximum (1RM) bench press and 4RM leg press the dynamic strength. Univariate ANOVA showed differences between groups in absolute and relative 1RM bench press and absolute isometric lumbar strength. Post hoc tests showed differences in 1RM bench press between HWE and LWE (117.0 ± 17.8 kg vs. 81.0 ± 10.0 kg) and HWE and LWP athletes (117.0 ± 17.8 kg vs. 76.7 ± 13.7 kg; 1.5 ± 0.2 kg·BW-1 vs. 1.1 ± 0.2 kg·BW-1). In addition, there was a correlation between 1RM bench press and isometric lumbar strength for absolute (r = 0.67) and relative values (r = 0.50). This study showed that the 1RM bench press and isometric lumbar strength were associated and could differentiate MMA athletes according to their competitive level and weight class. Therefore, optimizing the force production in the upper body and lower back seems important in elite and professional MMA athletes.

Comparison of the Physical Fitness Profile of Muay Thai and Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu Athletes with Reference to Training Experience

Background: In combat sports, successful competition and training require comprehensive motor fitness. The aim of this study was to diagnose the level of physical fitness and to determine the level of differences between athletes of combat sports characterized by stand-up fighting, such as Muay Thai; and ground fighting, such as Brazilian jiu-jitsu. Methods: The study examined and compared 30 participants divided into two equal groups: Muay Thai athletes (n = 15; age: 24.24 ± 3.24; body height: 174.91 ± 5.19; body weight: 77.56 ± 7.3), and Brazilian jiu-jitsu (BJJ) (n = 15; age: 22.82 ± 1.81; body height: 175.72 ± 7.03; body weight: 77.11 ± 8.12). Basic characteristics of the somatic build were measured. Selected manifestations of the motor potential of motor skills were also evaluated using selected tests from the EUROFIT test battery, the International Test of Physical Fitness, and computer tests of coordination skills. Relative strength and maximal anaerobic work (MAW) indices were calculated. The strength of the relationship between the effect of motor fitness and training experience was also assessed. Results: The athletes of both groups (Muay Thai and BJJ) presented similar levels of basic characteristics of the somatic build. Motor fitness in the tested groups showed significant differences between the athletes of these sports in static strength (p = 0.010), relative strength (p = 0.006), arm muscle strength in pull-ups (p = 0.035), and functional strength in bent arm hanging (p = 0.023). Higher levels of these components of motor fitness were found for the athletes in the BJJ athletes. In the Muay Thai group, significant very high strength of association was found between training experience and five strength tests. Furthermore, a significantly high strength of association was found in two tests. In the BJJ group, significant relationships with very high correlation were found between the variables in five strength tests. Conclusions: Brazilian jiu-jitsu athletes performed better in strength tests (static strength, relative strength, shoulder girdle strength, functional strength). High correlations between the training load and the level of physical fitness were found in flexibility and strength tests in BJJ athletes and most strength tests in Muay Thai athletes.

The effect of warm-up on peak impact force of the rear hand strike in full-contact combat sports

Warming up is a generally accepted practice that leads to improved performance and reduces the risk of injury in a wide range of sports. However, the evidence about the influence of warm-up in combat sports is limited and, specifically, little is known about the impact which delays between a warm-up and the start of a match may have on fighters' performance. This study investigates the influence of warm-up and cool-down on one of significant performance predictors in full-contact combat sports, the peak force of a rear hand strike, in a sample of 31 athletes.Peak impact force was measured before, after, and at two time points after a standardized warm-up routine; skin temperature and heart rate were also monitored. Warm-up and cool-down periods were substantial predictors of body temperature and heart rate, but we observed no effect of the warm-up routine on strike impact force. Strike impact force remained unaffected even after the cool-down intervals.Strike impact force does not seem to respond to physiological changes elicited by a warm-up. This measure is partly related only to fighters' physical characteristics, namely the body weight. Athletes and trainers could thus concentrate on other aspects of successful performance during warm-up routines.

The Influence of the Practiced Karate Style on the Dexterity and Strength of the Hand

Background: The need for a strong grip in ‘ground’ martial arts is undisputed, but it is not obvious in karate. It may be expected that in the case of advanced karate fighters where dynamic combat movements dominate, the level of speed skills will be high. However, does the karate style affect the Ditrich rod dexterity and the strength of the players’ handshake? Methods: 39 participants were analyzed, all of whom were elite karate fighters—21 in the Kyokushin style (age: 31.4 ± 6.3; body weight: 77.2 ± 18.2 kg) and 18 in the Shotokan style (age: 23.3 ± 11.8 years; body weight: 70.9) ± 14.2 kg). They performed the following: a test of reaction speed and dexterity with a Ditrich rod, and a hand grip strength test with a dynamometer. Results: The data shows that there is no difference in the Ditrich rod test for both the left and right hand among the analyzed Kyokushin and Shotokan fighters. Significant differences were recorded in the grip strength of both hands (p < 0.05). There is a positive correlation between the strength of the grip on both hands (r = 0.593; p < 0.05). Discussion: Kyokushin-style karate players have a higher grip strength than those trained in the Shotokan style. Perhaps this is due to differences in the preparation for fights. The analysis showed no statistical significance in the Ditrich rod test. It is probable that the level of dexterity in karate is independent of the training canon.

Weight-Cutting Implications for Competition Outcomes in Mixed Martial Arts Cage Fighting

ABSTRACT

Brechney, GC, Chia, E, and Moreland, AT. Weight-cutting implications for competition outcomes in mixed martial arts cage fighting. J Strength Cond Res 35(12): 3420-3424, 2021-Weight cutting is common among amateur and professional mixed martial arts (MMA) competitors because of the belief that it provides an advantage in combat sports. This study aimed to identify whether fight outcome (win vs. loss vs. type of loss) was influenced by magnitudes of body mass (BM) lost through weight cutting and BM regained before the fight after official weigh-in in amateur and professional MMA athletes with previous weight-cutting experience. Body mass data were collected using self-report from 75 MMA athletes (59 amateur and 16 professional) before commencing weight-cutting practices 7 days before weigh-in, by the regulating body at their official weigh-in 24 hours before the fight and through direct measurement immediately before competition. Data were analyzed according to win; loss by technical knockout or knockout (KO); loss by submission; or loss by the judge's decision. Athletes who lost their fight cut significantly more BM (10.6%) compared with athletes who won (8.6%) (p = 0.04, d = 0.48, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.02-0.93), but there were no differences between types of loss. There were no significant differences in recovered BM between athletes who won (6.8%) vs. lost (7.4%), or type of loss. Furthermore, there was a significant relationship between greater magnitudes of BM cut and greater likelihood of losing the fight (B = -0.12, P = 0.048), odd ratio 0.89 (95% CI: 0.79-1.00). This study provides the first line of evidence that excessive weight cutting may be detrimental to fight outcome in MMA.

Profiling Combat Sports Athletes: Competitive History and Outcomes According to Sports Type and Current Level of Competition

BACKGROUND

This study aimed to investigate the competitive history (the age when training and competing started), training habits and patterns of winning and losing of competitive combat sports athletes across different combat sports as well as the level of competition (e.g. amateurs, state-level and elite).

METHODS

Competitors (N = 298) from mixed martial arts (MMA), Muay Thai/kickboxing, boxing, Brazilian jiu-jitsu (BJJ), wrestling, judo and traditional striking sports (TSS) completed an online questionnaire.

RESULTS

Most athletes began competing in their mid-teenage years and competing soon after except for wrestlers who began earlier. Elite athletes began training earlier than amateurs (13.75 ± 7.75 years and 16.2 ± 7.45 years, p<0.01, respectively). Training habits were similar across sports (~4 combat and ~3 non-combat training sessions per week), except for MMA and wrestling which did more combat sports-specific training than Judo and TSS. Wrestlers did more non-combat sports-specific training than all other sports. Elite athletes completed more combat sessions per week than their lower-level contemporaries (4.64 ± 2.49 and 3.9 ± 1.44, p=0.01, respectively). Patterns of winning or losing were consistent across sports, except for amateur athletes who were more likely to report all their victories by points and none of their victories by submission or pin. Additionally, elite athletes are less likely to report none of their victories coming by knockout.

CONCLUSIONS

Results may indicate that finishing ability is a key distinguisher of competitive level. The present study provides normative data for training and competing habits for athletes, support staff and regulators to use.

Maxillofacial Trauma in the Ultimate Fighting Championship

PURPOSE

The Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) is an American mixed martial art (MMA) company. This study aims to characterize patterns and trends of maxillofacial injuries in MMA.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study design is a retrospective cohort study. Study sample consisted of fighters that suffered injuries during the matches from January 2015 to December 2019 (N = 259). The Athletic Commissions and corresponding fighting regulatory departments from 16 states and 24 countries were screened for medical reports released by UFC ringside physicians. Predictor variables were sex, weight division, injury location, injury type, and fight outcome (i.e., Technical Knockout/Knockout, Submission, Decision). Primary outcome variables were need for medical suspension and duration of medical suspension, secondary outcome variable was frequency of injury. Chi-square test was used to determine any statistical significance between predictor variables. One-way analysis of variance was used to determine any statistically significant differences between medical suspension times, sex, injury location, type of injury, weight divisions and fight outcome throughout the years. P value less than .05 (95% confidence interval [CI]) was considered statistically significant.

RESULTS

A total of 259 fighters suffered injuries. Of the 319 total injuries, 291 (91.2%) occurred in male fighters, and 28 (8.8%) in females. Middle facial third injuries were the most common for both males and females; lower facial third injuries were proportionally similar. The male weight division with the longest medical suspensions were the light heavyweight (110.68 days) and welterweight (108.25 days) (P < .10166); the female weight division with the longest medical suspension was strawweight (88.92 days) and shortest was bantamweight (81.75 days) (P < .921123).

CONCLUSIONS

Upper and midface trauma was predominant with fractures concentrated in the light heavyweight and welterweight divisions. Medical suspensions duration were longer in the light heavyweight and welterweight divisions.

Self-confidence and Disordered Eating amongst Martial Artists: A Cross-sectional Study

Background: Extreme dieting is a well-known phenomenon in combat sports, and still, little research has explored the link between extreme dieting and confidence levels among martial artists. Methods: In this cross-sectional study, extreme dieting and sport-specific self-confidence among 111 Swedish athletes practicing mixed martial arts (MMA) or Brazilian jiu-jitsu (BJJ) were examined. Athletes completed an online survey containing the Eating Disorder Examination questionnaire (EDE-Q) and the Trait Sport-Confidence inventory (TSCI). Results: The results showed that MMA athletes dieted in more extreme ways than BJJ athletes, primarily via restricted eating. They also had higher sport-specific self-confidence, which was positively correlated with weight loss. BJJ athletes used less restrictive eating than MMA athletes, but those who did diet in extreme ways experienced lower self-confidence compared to MMA athletes. Conclusions: The results are consistent with previous studies showing rapid weight loss in MMA athletes and suggest that some martial artists are at a particular risk of extreme dieting and possible sequelae. There is a link between self-confidence and weight loss, but it seems to allude to a comprehensive explanation and is in need of further research.

The physical demands of mixed martial arts: A narrative review using the ARMSS model to provide a hierarchy of evidence

The physical demands of mixed martial arts (MMA) training and competition is not yet well quantified. The Applied Research Model for the Sport Sciences (ARMSS) provides a framework through which to conduct sport science, determining pertinent questions to test research findings in real-world settings. The aim of this review was to evaluate MMA research within the context of ARMSS to critically analyse our understanding of the physical requirements of MMA training and competition. Research databases were searched, with 70 peer-reviewed articles being discussed in relation to the specific stage of the ARMSS in which their results best fit. MMA research was found to be mostly foundational and descriptive in nature and has generally not developed along systematic lines. The internal and external loads and responses to training and competition have not been adequately identified. Therefore, it is not currently possible to state which variables are key predictors of success, or how coaches can optimally manipulate these variables. We propose that MMA research be refocused to be conducted within ARMSS. Specifically, stage 2 studies describing the physical, physiological and technical demands of MMA training and competition, and stage 3 studies determining the physiological predictors of performance should be initially prioritised.

Acute fatigue affects reaction times and reaction consistency in Mixed Martial Arts fighters

Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) is a multielement combat sport where fighters need to quickly react to an opponent’s movements under fatigued conditions. Research indicates that fast reaction time is important in many sports, but the effect of fatigue has shown negative, null, or even positive influences on reaction time. However, few studies have been conducted in a controlled setting, especially using MMA figthers, whose matches are frequently resolved in a split-second. Therefore, this study investigated whether acute neuromuscular fatigue affects reaction and movement times, and their consistency in MMA fighters (N = 45). Before and after an upper-body Wingate test, a simple visual reaction time task was completed. Results showed a significant negative effect of fatigue on the reaction times and their consistency, with longer reactions (1.5% change) and lower consistency (14.7% change) after the Wingate test. Further, greater amounts of fatigue during the Wingate test seemed to negatively affect the consistency of post-Wingate movement time. Due to cumulative fatigue and the dynamic nature of MMA, our data indicate that not only the decrements in aerobic and anaerobic power likely affect a fighter’s performance, but their reaction time and motor time may also be compromised during a fight.

The Effects of Conditioning Training on Body Build, Aerobic and Anaerobic Performance in Elite Mixed Martial Arts Athletes

The aim of the study was: 1. to evaluate the effects of conditioning training on body build and physical fitness in elite mixed martial athletes, 2. to investigate the training load structure and assess body build as well as the physiological profile of mixed martial arts athletes. Fifteen MMA male athletes (body mass: 79.8 ± 3.9 kg; body height: 178.7 ± 7.9 cm; body fat: 13.4 ± 1.6%) were involved in the study. The average training experience of athletes equalled 11 ± 1.1 years. Body composition, upper limb peak anaerobic power and aerobic performance were assessed before and after the preparatory phase. During each evaluation, athletes underwent two stress tests: the Wingate test for the upper limbs (upper limb anaerobic peak power measurement) and the graded exercise test until volitional exhaustion (maximal oxygen uptake measurement and second ventilatory threshold determination). Training means were investigated for the workload type, intensity and exercise metabolism. In the follow-up, body fat mass decreased, while anaerobic peak power and aerobic performance improved. Improvement in the time to obtain and maintain peak power in the upper limbs was noted. Training periodization resulted in advantageous body composition changes and improved physical fitness of the MMA athletes.

Immunological Responses to a Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu High-Intensity Interval Training Session

The objective of the study was to characterize immunological responses to a Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu high-intensity interval training session. Neuromuscular function, blood, and salivary samples were obtained after a Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu high-intensity interval training session. Saliva and blood samples were collected at Pre- (before the warm-up) and immediately Post-training. Neuromuscular function was evaluated by lower body muscle testing. The horizontal countermovement jump was performed at Pre (after the warm-up) and immediately Post blood and saliva collection, and approximately 5 minutes Post-training. The horizontal countermovement jump performance did not present any significant changes Post-training, while blood leukocytes, urea, IgA and salivary alpha-amylase showed a significant increase. Salivary alpha-amylase activity increased more than six times immediately Post compared to Pre-training. Saliva volume, secretion rate, and uric acid were not significantly different between Pre and Post condition. A Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu high-intensity interval training session elicited an increase in the blood cells responsible for antibody production and muscle damage adaptation after exercise. On the other hand, neuromuscular performance was not significantly affected Post-training, suggesting that immunological and performance responses were not necessarily associated.

Self-reported methods of weight cutting in professional mixed-martial artists: how much are they losing and who is advising them?

BACKGROUND

Similar to other combat sports, mixed martial arts (MMA) includes divisional weight classes. The purpose of our research was to further investigate the amount of weight professional MMA fighters lost prior to weighing in for competition, their methods used to cut weight, and their sources of advice on how to cut weight.

METHODS

This survey was administered to 92 male professional MMA athletes. The survey questions included duration of overall weight loss prior to competition, methods of weight-cutting, and their sources of advice regarding weight cutting.

RESULTS

When comparing the number of methods of weight cutting with the source of advice, those who received their advice from social media used slightly more methods of weight cutting (M = 4.86, SD = 1.27) than those who did not (M = 4.02, SD = 1.55); t(90) = - 2.53, p < .05. MMA athletes that used the help of a registered dietitian nutritionist also reported using the least amount of methods for weight-cutting than any other category (M = 3.84, SD = 1.67). Those that used teammates and did not use a registered dietitian nutritionist used slightly more methods (M = 4.46, SD = 1.41) than those who used a registered dietitian nutritionist.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings of this study report that professional MMA athletes do undergo rapid weight loss through various methods to make weight for competition. This study adds evidence to the literature that most professional MMA athletes undergo RWL for competition without the guidance of a registered dietitian nutritionist. It is unclear what the effect of using a registered dietitian nutritionist may have on an MMA athletes' ability to reduce weight in a safe and effective manner. Future research should seek to investigate if employing a registered dietitian nutritionist may lead to a higher rate of success for MMA athletes to make weight, and help reduce adverse risks of RWL.

Application of the matching law to Mixed Martial Arts

In the contemporary behavior-analytic literature, athletic performance (e.g.,choice of shot or movement) across multiple team sports has been found to correspond with predictions of the generalized matching equation. However, the research in this area has focused primarily on team sports. In the current study the Generalized Matching Equation (GME) was applied to Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) performance by examining strike selection as a function of landing significant strikes among fighters from various weight classes in the Ultimate Fighting Championship. The results suggest that the GME is a good descriptor of strike selection in MMA, an individual sport that is dynamic and fast paced where responding results in immediate feedback from an opponent.

Considerations When Assessing Endurance in Combat Sport Athletes

Combat sports encompass a range of sports, each involving physical combat between participants. Such sports are unique, with competitive success influenced by a diverse range of physical characteristics. Effectively identifying and evaluating each characteristic is essential for athletes and support staff alike. Previous research investigating the relationship between combat sports performance and measures of strength and power is robust. However, research investigating the relationship between combat sports performance and assessments of endurance is less conclusive. As a physical characteristic, endurance is complex and influenced by multiple factors including mechanical efficiency, maximal aerobic capacity, metabolic thresholds, and anaerobic capacities. To assess endurance of combat sports athletes, previous research has employed methods ranging from incremental exercise tests to circuits involving sports-specific techniques. These tests range in their ability to discern various physiological attributes or performance characteristics, with varying levels of accuracy and ecological validity. In fact, it is unclear how various physiological attributes influence combat sport endurance performance. Further, the sensitivity of sports specific skills in performance based tests is also unclear. When developing or utilizing tests to better understand an athletes' combat sports-specific endurance characteristic, it is important to consider what information the test will and will not provide. Additionally, it is important to determine which combination of performance and physiological assessments will provide the most comprehensive picture. Strengthening the understanding of assessing combat sport-specific endurance as a physiological process and as a performance metric will improve the quality of future research and help support staff effectively monitor their athlete's characteristics.

Predictors of Fighting Ability Inferences Based on Faces

Facial perception plays a key role in various social interactions, including formidability assessments. People make relatively accurate inferences about men's physical strength, aggressiveness, and success in physical confrontations based on facial cues. The physical factors related to the perception of fighting ability and their relative contribution have not been investigated yet, since most existing studies employed only a limited number of threat potential measures or proxies. In the present study, we collected data from Czech Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) fighters regarding their fighting success and physical performance in order to test physical predictors of perceived fighting ability made on the basis of high-fidelity facial photographs. We have also explored the relationship between perceived and actual fighting ability. We created standardized 360° photographs of 44 MMA fighters which were assessed on their perceived fighting ability by 94 raters (46 males). Further, we obtained data regarding their physical characteristics (e.g., age, height, body composition) and performance (MMA score, isometric strength, anaerobic performance, lung capacity). In contrast to previous studies, we did not find any significant links between the actual and the perceived fighting ability. The results of a multiple regression analysis have, however, shown that heavier fighters and those with higher anaerobic performance were judged as more successful. Our results suggest that certain physical performance-related characteristics are mirrored in individuals' faces but assessments of fighting success based on facial cues are not congruent with actual fighting performance.

Cold Water Immersion Enhanced Athletes' Wellness and 10-m Short Sprint Performance 24-h After a Simulated Mixed Martial Arts Combat

Objective: The aim of the present study was to examine the effect of Cold Water Immersion (CWI) on the recovery of physical performance, hematological stress markers and perceived wellness (i.e., Hooper scores) following a simulated Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) competition.

Methods: Participants completed two experimental sessions in a counter-balanced order (CWI or passive recovery for control condition: CON), after a simulated MMAs competition (3 × 5-min MMA rounds separated by 1-min of passive rest). During CWI, athletes were required to submerge their bodies, except the trunk, neck and head, in the seated position in a temperature-controlled bath (∼10°C) for 15-min. During CON, athletes were required to be in a seated position for 15-min in same room ambient temperature. Venous blood samples (creatine kinase, cortisol, and testosterone concentrations) were collected at rest (PRE-EX, i.e., before MMAs), immediately following MMAs (POST-EX), immediately following recovery (POST-R) and 24 h post MMAs (POST-24), whilst physical fitness (squat jump, countermovement-jump and 5- and 10-m sprints) and perceptual measures (well-being Hooper index: fatigue, stress, delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS), and sleep) were collected at PRE-EX, POST-R and POST-24, and at PRE-EX and POST-24, respectively.

Results: The main results indicate that POST-R sprint (5- and 10-m) performances were ‘likely to very likely’ (d = 0.64 and 0.65) impaired by prior CWI. However, moderate improvements were in 10-m sprint performance were ‘likely’ evident at POST-24 after CWI compared with CON (d = 0.53). Additionally, the use of CWI ‘almost certainly’ resulted in a large overall improvement in Hooper scores (d = 1.93). Specifically, CWI ‘almost certainly’ resulted in improved sleep quality (d = 1.36), stress (d = 1.56) and perceived fatigue (d = 1.51), and ‘likely’ resulted in a moderate decrease in DOMS (d = 0.60).

Conclusion: The use of CWI resulted in an enhanced recovery of 10-m sprint performance, as well as improved perceived wellness 24-h following simulated MMA competition.

Towards a Determination of the Physiological Characteristics Distinguishing Successful Mixed Martial Arts Athletes: A Systematic Review of Combat Sport Literature

BACKGROUND

Mixed martial arts (MMA) is a combat sport underpinned by techniques from other combat disciplines, in addition to strategies unique to the sport itself. These sports can be divided into two distinct categories (grappling or striking) based on differing technical demands. Uniquely, MMA combines both methods of combat and therefore appears to be physiologically complex requiring a spectrum of mechanical and metabolic qualities to drive performance. However, little is known about the physiological characteristics that distinguish higher- from lower-level MMA athletes. Such information provides guidance for training interventions, performance testing and talent identification. Furthermore, while MMA incorporates techniques from both grappling and striking sports, it is unknown precisely how these disciplines differ physiologically. Understanding the relationship between higher-level competitors in grappling and striking combat sports can provide further insight into the development of the optimal performance profile of a higher-level MMA athlete.

OBJECTIVE

This article aims to analyse the scientific literature on MMA and the primary combat sports underpinning it to determine the physiological adaptations that distinguish superior competitors, with a view to defining the optimal physiological profile for higher-level MMA performance. Furthermore, this article will explore the differences in these capabilities between grappling- and striking-based combat sports in the context of MMA.

METHODS

A literature search was undertaken via PubMed, Web of Science, SportDiscus and Google Scholar. The following sports were included for systematic review based on their relevance to MMA: mixed martial arts, boxing, Brazilian jiu-jitsu, judo, karate, kickboxing, Muay Thai and wrestling. The inclusion criteria allowed studies that compared athletes of differing competition levels in the same sport using a physiological performance measure. Only male, adult (aged 17-40 years), able-bodied competitors were included. The search history spanned from the earliest record until September 2015.

RESULTS

Of the eight combat sports searched for, five were represented across 23 studies. Sixteen investigations described maximal strength or neuromuscular power variables, while 19 articles reported anaerobic or aerobic measures. The results indicate that a number of strength, neuromuscular power and anaerobic variables distinguished higher- from lower-level combat sport athletes. However, these differences were less clear when groups were stratified within, rather than between competition grades. Greater aerobic power was generally not present amongst superior combat sport competitors.

CONCLUSION

There appear to be differing physiological profiles between more successful grappling and striking combat sport athletes. This is represented by high-force demands of grappling sports causing an upwards shift of the entire force-velocity relationship driven by an increase in maximal strength. In comparison, smaller increases in maximal force production with more notable enhancements in lighter load, higher velocity actions may better identify superior performance in striking sports. Anaerobic capabilities largely distinguished higher- from lower-level combat sport athletes. In particular, longer-term anaerobic efforts seem to define successful grappling-based athletes, while superior competitors in striking sports tend to show dominance in shorter-term measures when compared with their lower-level counterparts. Given the demand for both forms of combat in MMA, a spectrum of physiological markers may characterize higher-level competitors. Furthermore, the performance profile of successful MMA athletes may differ based on combat sport history or competition strategy.

Biochemical Differences Between Official and Simulated Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) Matches

BACKGROUND

One of the goals for training in combat sports is to mimic real situations. For mixed martial arts (MMA), simulated sparring matches are a frequent component during training, but a there is a lack of knowledge considering the differences in sparring and competitive environments.

OBJECTIVES

The main objective of this study was to compare biochemical responses to sparring and official MMA matches.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Twenty five male professional MMA fighters were evaluated during official events (OFF = 12) and simulated matches (SIM = 13). For both situations, blood samples were taken before (PRE) and immediately after (POST) matches. For statistical analysis, two-way analysis of variance (time x group and time x winner) were used to compare the dependent parametric variables. For non-parametric data, the Kruskal-Wallis test was used and differences were confirmed by Mann-Whitney tests.

RESULTS

No significant differences were observed among the groups for demographic variables. The athletes were 26.5 ± 5 years with 80 ± 10 kg, 1.74 ± 0.05 m and had 39.4 ± 25 months of training experience. Primary results indicated higher blood glucose concentration prior to fights for OFF group (OFF= 6.1 ± 1.2 mmol/L and SIM= 4.4 ± 0.7 mmol/L; P < 0.01) and higher ALT values for OFF group at both time points (OFF: PRE = 41.2 ± 12 U/L, POST = 44.2 ± 14.1 U/L; SIM: PRE = 28.1 ± 13.8 U/L, POST = 30.5 ± 12.5 U/L; P = 0.001). In addition, the blood lactate showed similar responses for both groups (OFF: PRE= 4 [3.4 - 4.4] mmol/L, POST= 16.9 [13.8 - 23.5] mmol/L; SIM: PRE = 3.8 [2.8 - 5.5] mmol/L, POST= 16.8 [12.3 - 19.2] mmol/L; P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, MMA official and simulated matches induce similar high intensity glycolytic demands and minimal changes to biochemical markers of muscle damage immediately following the fights. Glycolytic availability prior to the fights was raised exclusively in response to official matches.

The effect of an intervention program on functional movement screen test scores in mixed martial arts athletes

This study assessed the basic fundamental movements of mixed martial arts (MMA) athletes using the functional movement screen (FMS) assessment and determined if an intervention program was successful at improving results. Participants were placed into 1 of the 2 groups: intervention and control groups. The intervention group was required to complete a corrective exercise program 4 times per week, and all participants were asked to continue their usual MMA training routine. A mid-intervention FMS test was included to examine if successful results were noticed sooner than the 8-week period. Results highlighted differences in FMS test scores between the control group and intervention group (p = 0.006). Post hoc testing revealed a significant increase in the FMS score of the intervention group between weeks 0 and 8 (p = 0.00) and weeks 0 and 4 (p = 0.00) and no significant increase between weeks 4 and 8 (p = 1.00). A χ analysis revealed that the intervention group participants were more likely to have an FMS score >14 than participants in the control group at week 4 (χ = 7.29, p < 0.01) and week 8 (χ = 5.2, p ≤ 0.05). Finally, a greater number of participants in the intervention group were free from asymmetry at week 4 and week 8 compared with the initial test period. The results of the study suggested that a 4-week intervention program was sufficient at improving FMS scores. Most if not all, the movements covered on the FMS relate to many aspects of MMA training. The knowledge that the FMS can identify movement dysfunctions and, furthermore, the fact that the issues can be improved through a standardized intervention program could be advantageous to MMA coaches, thus, providing the opportunity to adapt and implement new additions to training programs.

Men's physical strength moderates conceptualizations of prospective foes in two disparate societies

Across taxa, strength and size are elementary determinants of relative fighting capacity; in species with complex behavioral repertoires, numerous additional factors also contribute. When many factors must be considered simultaneously, decision-making in agonistic contexts can be facilitated through the use of a summary representation. Size and strength may constitute the dimensions used to form such a representation, such that tactical advantages or liabilities influence the conceptualized size and muscularity of an antagonist. If so, and given the continued importance of physical strength in human male-male conflicts, a man's own strength will influence his conceptualization of the absolute size and strength of an opponent. In the research reported here, male participants' chest compression strength was compared with their estimates of the size and muscularity of an unfamiliar potential antagonist, presented either as a supporter of a rival sports team (Study 1, conducted in urban California, and Study 2, conducted in rural Fiji) or as a man armed with a handgun (Study 3, conducted in rural Fiji). Consistent with predictions, composite measures of male participants' estimates of the size/strength of a potential antagonist were inversely correlated with the participant's own strength. Therefore, consonant with a history wherein violent intrasexual selection has acted on human males, a man's own physical strength influences his representations of potential antagonists.

Dehydration and acute weight gain in mixed martial arts fighters before competition

The purpose of this study was to characterize the magnitude of acute weight gain (AWG) and dehydration in mixed martial arts (MMA) fighters before competition. Urinary measures of hydration status and body mass were determined approximately 24 hours before and then again approximately 2 hours before competition in 40 MMA fighters (mean ± SE, age: 25.2 ± 0.65 years, height: 1.77 ± 0.01 m, body mass: 75.8 ± 1.5 kg). The AWG was defined as the amount of body weight the fighters gained in the approximately 22-hour period between the official weigh-in and the actual competition. On average, the MMA fighters gained 3.40 ± 2.2 kg or 4.4% of their body weight in the approximately 22-hour period before competition. Urine specific gravity significantly decreased (p < 0.001) from 1.028 ± 0.001 to 1.020 ± 0.001 during the approximately 22-hour rehydration period. Results demonstrated that 39% of the MMA fighters presented with a Usg of >1.021 immediately before competition indicating significant or serious dehydration. The MMA fighters undergo significant dehydration and fluctuations in body mass (4.4% avg.) in the 24-hour period before competition. Urinary measures of hydration status indicate that a significant proportion of MMA fighters are not successfully rehydrating before competition and subsequently are competing in a dehydrated state. Weight management guidelines to prevent acute dehydration in MMA fighters are warranted to prevent unnecessary adverse health events secondary to dehydration.