Turning pain into strength: prosocial behaviours in coping with trauma

Background: Various coping strategies have been shown to alleviate the negative effects of trauma, yet the significance of prosocial behaviour in this realm has been notably underexplored. The present study explored the hypothesis that engaging in prosocial behaviour mitigates the impacts of trauma by promoting a sense of competence and relatedness, post-traumatic growth (PTG), and reconstruction of meaning.Methods: Three consecutive studies were conducted with college students to compare differences in consequence of prosocial behaviours between a trauma group and a control group. Study 1 (N = 96) used self-reported experiences of traumatic vs non-traumatic events; Study 2 (N = 43) used exposure vs. no exposure to video of an earthquake; Study 3 (N = 20) used a randomized controlled trial (RCT) of a prosocial-themed intervention vs. no intervention. Outcomes in all studies were assessed by self-report questionnaires.Results: Trauma damaged participants' sense of competence and meaningfulness. Prosocial behaviour relieved the impact of trauma on meaning, specifically manifested in the individuals' sense of meaningfulness and their search for meaning. Group interventions with a prosocial theme (based on effect size results) reduced post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and enhanced PTG in victims. The promoting effect on PTG persisted a month later, and its enhancing effect on meaning manifested with a delay.Conclusion: Prosocial behaviour can potentially serve as a beneficial strategy for individuals coping with trauma because it helps enhance meaning and promotes PTG in victims. This conclusion is supported by laboratory experiments and a tentative small-scale intervention study, which provide an innovative perspective for future trauma interventions.

Posttraumatic Growth, Dissociation and Identification With The Aggressor Among Childhood Abuse Survivors

Childhood abuse puts individuals at risk for psychopathology and psychiatric symptoms such as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and anxiety symptoms. At the same time, research has indicated that some survivors report positive transformations in the aftermath of their trauma, known as posttraumatic growth (PTG). Yet the essence of PTG reports is questionable, and some scholars claim that it may reflect maladaptive illusory qualities. Furthermore, according to a recent theoretical model, PTG might be dissociation-based and related to survivors' bonds with their perpetrators. This study aimed to explore these claims by assessing PTG, dissociation, and identification with the aggressor (IWA), as well as PTSD and anxiety symptoms. An online survey was conducted among 597 adult childhood abuse survivors. Study variables were assessed via self-report measures. Analyses indicated positive associations between PTG, dissociation, and IWA. Three distinct profiles were found, reflecting high, medium, and low scores on PTG, dissociation, and IWA. Profile type explained PTSD and anxiety symptoms above and beyond gender, age, and abuse severity. These findings suggest that whereas some childhood abuse survivors might experience a positive transformation subsequent to their trauma, others' PTG reports might reflect dissociative mechanisms and pathological attachments to their perpetrators, and thus might be maladaptive.

Peritraumatic reactions during the COVID-19 pandemic - The contribution of posttraumatic growth attributed to prior trauma

Trauma survivors who suffer from posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms may be particularly vulnerable when facing the COVID-19 pandemic. Yet trauma exposure may also lead to salutogenic outcomes, known as posttraumatic growth (PTG). Nevertheless, the implications of PTG attributed to prior trauma, for trauma survivors' adjustment when facing additional stressors, are unclear. Addressing this gap, 528 Israeli trauma survivors were assessed for PTG and PTSD symptoms attributed to prior trauma, as well as peritraumatic stress symptoms related to the pandemic, as part of an online survey. Analyses revealed that being younger, female, quarantined, negatively self-rating one's health status, and suffering from PTSD symptoms were associated with elevated peritraumatic stress symptoms. Furthermore, PTG attributed to prior trauma made a significant contribution in explaining elevated intrusion, avoidance, and hyperarousal symptoms. The present results point to the need for clinicians to take into account reports of PTG attributed to prior trauma when treating trauma survivors during the current pandemic.

Effects of mortality awareness on attitudes toward dying and death and meaning in life-a randomized controlled trial

A randomized controlled trial was carried out to investigate effects of heightened mortality awareness on meaning in life and attitudes toward dying and death. An intervention group (n = 51) completed questionnaires and participated in interventions to increase mortality awareness; a control group (n = 47) only completed the questionnaires. Longitudinal analyses revealed a decrease in the intervention group's fear of dying and an increase in their acceptance of dying, but no effects on attitudes toward death. Changes in meaningfulness were contingent on participants' religiousness. Unexpected cross-sectional results and the study's implications for theory and further empirical work are discussed.

Post-Traumatic Growth, Dissociation, and Sexual Revictimization in Female Childhood Sexual Abuse Survivors

BACKGROUND

Childhood sexual abuse (CSA) survivors are at high risk of sexual revictimization. At the same time, some survivors report positive transformations resulting from the traumatic experience, a phenomenon known as post-traumatic growth (PTG). Although one might expect PTG to be related to reduced risk of revictimization, the link between PTG and revictimization has not been investigated. Furthermore, mixed findings regarding the associations between PTG and distress imply that the effects of PTG are multifaceted. One potential explanation may be that dissociation shapes the implications of PTG, making it more like denial than adaptive processing of traumatic experience. This longitudinal study explores (a) the associations between PTG and sexual revictimization and (b) the moderating role of dissociation within the associations between PTG and revictimization.

METHOD

Participants were 111 female CSA survivors who participated in a 6-month efficacy trial evaluating the effectiveness of group psychotherapy for CSA survivors with HIV risk factors.

RESULTS

Dissociation moderated the associations between PTG and revictimization: Whereas PTG had nonsignificant effects on revictimization in participants with low dissociation, it predicted elevated levels of revictimization in participants with high dissociation.

CONCLUSIONS

Reports of PTG among some CSA survivors might mirror dissociative beliefs that increase their risk of revictimization.

The Relationship Between Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms and Posttraumatic Growth Among HIV-Infected Men Who Have Sex With Men in Beijing, China: The Mediating Roles of Coping Strategies

The traumatic experience of contracting and living with HIV/AIDS may produce a myriad of mental health problems, especially posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, and conversely, bring posttraumatic growth (PTG), that is, positive changes resulting from a struggle with trauma. The growing body of research into the relationship between PTSD symptoms and PTG has produced mixed results. In addition, some research has suggested that psychosocial and cognitive factors may mediate the development of PTG after trauma exposure. Specifically, individuals experience fewer psychological symptoms and better mental health when adaptive coping strategies align with stressors; however, little research is available on the relationship and the mediating effect of coping strategies on the link of PTSD symptoms and PTG among HIV-infected men who have sex with men (MSM) in China. The aims of the current study were to investigate the relationship between PTSD symptoms and PTG as well as the potential mediating effects of coping strategies through which PTSD symptoms contributes to PTG among this vulnerable population. One hundred and forty HIV-positive MSM were recruited from the Beijing Center for Disease Prevention and Control and were asked to complete a battery of self-administered questionnaires, covering sociodemographic and HIV-related characteristics, coping strategies (i.e., problem-solving, seeking social support, self-blame, and wishful thinking), PTSD symptoms, and PTG. Results showed that, after controlling for sociodemographic and HIV-related variables, a negative linear relationship was found between PTSD symptoms and PTG. In addition, problem-solving and self-blame played significant mediating roles in the association between PTSD symptoms and PTG. The mediating effects of seeking social support and engaging in wishful thinking on the PTSD symptoms and PTD link were, however, non-significant. The present study contributes to an understanding of the association between PTSD symptoms and PTG and underscores the mediators through which individuals gain growth from traumatic experience in the context of HIV infection in Beijing, China. Given these findings, the future efforts at psychological intervention should differentiate and target various types of coping strategies, especially focusing on enhancing problem-solving skills and decreasing self-blame, in response to the promotion of positive growth among HIV-infected MSM.

Personality and Post-traumatic Growth of Adolescents 42 Months after the Wenchuan Earthquake: A Mediated Model

The aim of this study was to examine the relationship of teenagers' post-traumatic growth (PTG) and personality and coping style by developing a mediating model with matched data from 772 adolescents. The sample consisted of 772 adolescents (mean age = 12.93, SD = 1.80) from several middle schools located in the areas that were most severely affected by the earthquake. Five factor model of personality, Coping Style Scale and Post-traumatic Growth Inventory were used to measure personality, coping and PTG of adolescents respectively. The results showed that the mean of PTG is 2.87 (SD = 0.93). Moreover, the relationship between personality and PTG is mediated by cognitive coping. The model's fit indices indicated a good fit (CFI = 0.996, TLI = 0.962, NFI = 0.994, RMSEA = 0.055). Results showed that a positive cognition coping style mediated the relationship between personality and PTG.

A Theory on Reports of Constructive (Real) and Illusory Posttraumatic Growth

It has been suggested that self-reported posttraumatic growth could sometimes be considered as a way for people to protect themselves from the distress of trauma. In this case, reports of posttraumatic growth could be illusory. We suggest a theory on self-reported constructive (real) posttraumatic growth and illusory posttraumatic growth by using Rogers’s theory and the work by Vaillant. Through this theoretical framework, we attempt to explain when reports of posttraumatic growth are likely to be constructive and real and when such reports are likely to represent aspects of illusions. We will also consider the implications for research practice.

The risk factors of possible PTSD in individuals exposed to a suicide attack in Turkey

The aims of this study were to determine both the rate of possible PTSD in individuals who were exposed to a suicide attack in Ankara, Turkey, and the factors that relate to the elevated risk for PTSD in individuals who survived that suicide attack. The researchers carried out the study with 93 participants who had attended a meeting held in Ankara on October 10, 2015. Participants completed a sociodemographic information form, the Traumatic Stress Symptom Checklist (TSSC), the Post-Traumatic Cognitions Inventory, the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), and the Influence of Perceived Societal Attitudes Questionnaire (IPSAQ). Twenty-three of participants were determined to have possible PTSD (24.7%). Participants who were exposed previously to a suicide attack, who witnessed a life-threatening injury, who had the need for psychological help, and who had suicidal thoughts had significantly higher rates of possible PTSD. The IPSAQ, BDI, and TSSC scores were significantly higher in the participants with possible PTSD. The IPSAQ score was found to be related to the development of possible PTSD. This study demonstrated that in participants who had been exposed to a terrorist attack, the negative impact of perceived societal attitudes toward the victims was related to the possible development of PTSD.

What Determines Posttraumatic Stress and Growth Following Various Traumatic Events? A Study in a Turkish Community Sample

This study aimed to examine the roles of personality traits, traumatic event types, coping, rumination, and social support in explaining posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTS) and posttraumatic growth (PTG) in a representative community sample of 498 Turkish adults. The results of 2 multiple regression analyses showed that PTS was associated with neuroticism, experiencing events involving intentional/assaultive violence, intrusive and deliberate rumination, and fatalistic coping. In contrast, PTG was related to conscientiousness, openness to experience, injury/shocking and sudden-death type of events, deliberate rumination, problem-solving coping, and perceived social support. When all variables were entered into the equation, almost two thirds of the variability (R² = .64) in the severity of PTS and more than one third of the variability (R² = .40) in PTG was explained. The findings can aid in the development of psychosocial support programs for individuals experiencing traumatic events.

Introducing Science to the Psychology of the Soul

Humans live out their lives knowing that their own death is inevitable; that their most cherished beliefs and values, and even their own identities, are uncertain; that they face a bewildering array of choices; and that their private subjective experiences can never be shared with another human being. This knowledge creates five major existential concerns: death, isolation, identity, freedom, and meaning. The role of these concerns in human affairs has traditionally been the purview of philosophy. However, recent methodological and conceptual advances have led to the emergence of an experimental existential psychology directed toward empirically investigating the roles that these concerns play in psychological functioning. This new domain of psychological science has revealed the pervasive influence of deep existential concerns on diverse aspects of human thought and behavior.

Finding Meaning in Life Following Emergency Postpartum Hysterectomy: What Doesn't Kill Us Makes Us Stronger

INTRODUCTION

Childbirth is generally perceived to be a triumphant and joyous moment in a woman's life. However, current research indicates that it can also be a time of fear, dread, and apprehension, particularly when the birth experience is traumatic. Some women attempt to seek the positives of their traumatic or unexpected childbirth experience to be able to cope with their experience. However, little attention is directed toward how women rebuild their lives and grow following traumatic birth experiences such as severe postpartum hemorrhage and emergency hysterectomy.

METHODS

Twenty-one Australian women, aged 24 to 57 years, who had experienced severe postpartum hemorrhage and emergency hysterectomy were interviewed in an in-depth qualitative study about their experiences.

RESULTS

Thematic analysis revealed the major theme of moving forward and 4 subthemes: appreciating life and what you have; what really counts: learning and growing; accepting it: it's just the way it is; and reframing the experience: seeking the positives All of the women found meaning following their hysterectomy, which produced a positive perspective on their lives.

DISCUSSION

The way that women find meaning and cope with the trauma of having a severe postpartum hemorrhage and emergency hysterectomy is significant to their ability to move forward and live life to the fullest. Midwives and other health care providers may be in a position to provide support for women in the aftermath of severe postpartum hemorrhage and emergency hysterectomy.

"A gift wrapped in barbed wire" positive and negative life changes after being diagnosed with inflammatory bowel disease

PURPOSE

A growing interest in posttraumatic growth among individuals who have experienced a traumatic event has given rise to measures such as the Posttraumatic Growth Inventory (PTGI; Tedeschi and Calhoun, 1996). However, such measures may not fully represent all dimensions of change among individuals diagnosed with a chronic disease and fail to highlight the negative changes that may also occur. This study explores the positive and negative changes patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) have experienced since diagnosis.

METHODS

Three hundred and seventy-eight IBD patients provided answers to the qualitative question "Could you please describe the (positive/negative) effect(s) IBD has had on your life?" A grounded theory approach using NVivo was performed on participants' responses.

RESULTS

Nearly 73 % of participants reported their disease positively affected their life in some way, and five themes related to positive changes emerged from the analysis: Interpersonal Relations, Personal Growth, Valuing Life, New Life Paths, and Spiritual Growth. However, almost 80 % of participants also reported their disease negatively affected their lives, with three themes emerging from the analysis: Freedom Restrictions, Psychological Side Effects, and Social Isolation.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results support previous findings but also reveal that some dimensions related to the positive changes following adversity are not adequately assessed by the PTGI (e.g., appraising existing friendships, openness to try different forms of treatment or therapies, and psychological preparedness). The implications of these findings for future measurement and research of posttraumatic growth with IBD patients are discussed.

How religious doubt moderates depression symptoms following older adult bereavement

This study examined the relationship of religious doubt with mental health following bereavement, using data from a nationally representative longitudinal survey of religion and health in older adulthood. Growth curve modeling analyzed trajectories of change in symptoms of depression at up to three waves over up to seven years following either family bereavement or non-bereavement trauma. After bereavement, those with more religious doubt reported worsening symptoms, whereas those with less doubt reported stable or improving symptoms over the same period. After nonbereavement trauma, religious doubt was not associated with symptom change.

Posttraumatic growth: why do people grow from their trauma?

In two experimental studies we found that participants who recalled a highly traumatic autobiographical event (trauma recall) compared with a lesser traumatic event (stress recall) reported having increasingly grown (posttraumatic growth, PTG). Moreover, participants who recalled a traumatic (vs. stressful) event perceived more death-related thoughts (Study 1) and reported coping with this event in a more emotion-focused and in a less problem-focused way (Study 2). Mediation analyzes revealed that the effect of trauma versus stress recall on PTG was mediated by emphasizing the positive, a subscale of emotion-focused coping. These results imply that growth resulting from traumatic events can be traced back to an illusion. No evidence was found that real PTG took place or that the effects shown resulted from death-related thoughts (terror management theory).

Elaboration on posttraumatic growth in youth exposed to terror: the role of religiosity and political ideology

OBJECTIVES

This study aims to examine competing explanations of the relationship between religious and political ideology commitment with posttraumatic growth.

METHOD

Subjects were Israeli youth who were exposed to terror (n = 2,999) aged 13-15. Measures included: posttraumatic growth inventory, religious orientation, ideological commitment, objective and subjective exposure to terror.

RESULTS

Both religiosity and political ideology mediated the effects of exposure and fear on growth. Political ideology but not religiosity, had a moderating effect, such that subjective fear was positively associated with growth only among those with stronger ideologies.

CONCLUSION

Results support the contention of Terror Management Theory that cultural beliefs have beneficial effects on well being in the face of adversity and emphasize the role of cultural world as effecting growth, beyond trauma.

Corroboration of Growth Following Breast Cancer: Ten Years Later

Disease-free breast cancer survivors (n = 180) were interviewed 10 years after diagnosis. They were asked questions about the lasting effects of cancer. The vast majority identified positive effects. The validity of growth reports was investigated by: (1) comparing survivors' to significant others' responses and (2) comparing survivors' reports to their standing on relevant dimensions. Results revealed little corroboration by significant others but some corroboration by relevant dimensions. There was greater corroboration for the costs than the benefits of breast cancer. Survivors reported more benefits than significant others. There was little evidence that corroboration was greater when the significant other was a spouse compared to someone else. Research should continue to explore the validity and meaning of growth reports.

Does self-reported posttraumatic growth reflect genuine positive change?

In this study, we evaluated the validity of self-reported posttraumatic growth (PTG) by assessing the relation between perceived growth and actual growth from pre- to posttrauma. Undergraduate students completed measures tapping typical PTG domains at Time 1 and Time 2 (2 months later). We compared change in those measures with scores on the Posttraumatic Growth Inventory (PTGI; Tedeschi & Calhoun, 1996) for those participants who reported a traumatic event between Time 1 and Time 2 (n= 122). PTGI scores generally were unrelated to actual growth in PTG-related domains. Moreover, perceived growth was associated with increased distress from pre- to posttrauma, whereas actual growth was related to decreased distress, a pattern suggesting that perceived and actual growth reflect different processes. Finally, perceived (but not actual) growth was related to positive reinterpretation coping. Thus, the PTGI, and perhaps other retrospective measures, does not appear to measure actual pre- to posttrauma change.

Evidence for a curvilinear relationship between posttraumatic growth and posttrauma depression and PTSD in assault survivors

Two studies of assault survivors (Ns = 180, 70) examined associations between posttraumatic growth (PTG) and posttrauma psychopathology. Both studies found significant curvilinear associations between PTG and posttraumatic stress disorder, whereas only Study 1 found a curvilinear association between PTG and depression symptom severity. Survivors with no or high growth levels reported fewer symptoms than those who reported moderate growth. Study 1 also investigated potential PTG predictors. Non-Caucasian ethnicity, religiousness, peritraumatic fear, shame, and ruminative thinking style, assessed at 2 weeks, predicted growth at 6 months. Posttraumatic growth may thus be most relevant in trauma survivors who attach enduring significance to the trauma for their lives and show initial distress. Moderate levels of PTG do not seem to ameliorate posttrauma psychopathology.

Resilience

Traditionally resilience is viewed as an important way of coping: Through resilience, an individual recovers from or avoids negative outcomes from burdensome conditions. In this paper, we argue that individual stability under significant adverse conditions (i.e., resilience) results, to a large degree, from coping processes (e.g., assimilation and accommodation) influenced by personal and situational conditions. Moreover, we propose that resilience, viewed as a stabilizing constellation, should be considered an important part of the conceptual bridge between coping and development. Resilience, however, requires a definition of successful development. Here, we argue that the potential and possibility for further development may be used as a common denominator of current proposals. The aim is to outline an integrative model of coping, resilience, and development as a theoretical access to successful aging. Some empirical results illustrate the developmental conditions for assimilative and accommodative processes.

Personal growth and cognitive complexity in caregivers of patients with dementia

According to several theoretical models, crises or demands can result in enhanced cognitive maturity. Two studies examined whether demands on caregivers provide an opportunity to experience increased cognitive maturity (e.g., cognitive complexity, personal growth through caregiving). In Study 1 (126 relatives of dementia patients; cross-sectional design), personal growth through caregiving was associated with two specific caregiving demands: duration of caregiving and lack of social acknowledgment. Cognitive complexity correlated with duration of caregiving and crystallized intelligence. The caregivers in the second study (N = 321) were participants in LEANDER, The Longitudinal Dementia Caregiver Stress Study. Caregivers were examined in four waves over 27 months. The results indicated an increase in personal growth over time. Using latent growth models, we found that increases in personal growth through caregiving were predicted by increases in the objective caregiving tasks. Cognitive processes (e.g., ruminative thoughts, life reflection) provide a possible explanation for an increase in cognitive maturity.

The experience of posttraumatic growth for people with spinal cord injury

The purpose of this qualitative study was to explore the characteristics of posttraumatic growth for people with spinal cord injury. In this study, we intentionally selected people exhibiting evidence of posttraumatic growth to capture distinctive characteristics of the phenomenon. A thematic analysis was used to examine the narratives of life experiences before and after spinal cord injury. The three most salient themes of posttraumatic growth were identified: experience of meaningful family relationships, experience of meaningful engagement, and appreciation of life. Further investigation into the experience of posttraumatic growth is necessary in the future for a better understanding of the phenomena.

From devastation to integration: Adjusting to and growing from medical trauma

Recent trauma research has begun to investigate the possibility of posttraumatic growth. However, most studies have investigated posttraumatic growth using quantitative methods and thus have neglected people's subjective experience and have left unexamined post-traumatic growth in persons with visible impairment. To fill some of these gaps, the authors examined the process of recovery and posttraumatic growth using a qualitative method. They interviewed 10 participants with visible impairment from chronic illness or serious injury using a semistructured interview. Using a grounded theory data analysis procedure, the authors developed a stage model of trauma and recovery from the interviews. The stages that emerged are thematically entitled Apprehension, Diagnosis and Devastation, Choosing to Go On, Building a Way to Live, and Integration of the Trauma and Expansion of the Self. The authors discuss limitations of the study and clinical implications for psychological counseling with this population.

Prädiktoren von Persönlichkeitswachstum bei pflegenden Angehörigen demenziell Erkrankter

Much of the research on caregiving has focussed on burden, stress, and coping, but there may also be positive outcomes associated with the process of care. Relatives caring for dementia patients report that they have grown more mature personally and gain a better idea of what is important in life. The purpose of this study is to look at predictors of personal growth. A total of 888 relatives of patients with dementia were examined. We found, using ordinary least squares regression, that personal growth was correlated with stressors and context variables like duration of caregiving, lack of social recognition, and the need for help with Activities of Daily Living (ADL) in the person with dementia. Personal growth through caregiving was predicted by duration of caregiving during the first years of caregiving. These findings underscore the importance of the negative aspects (stress, burden, long duration) that contribute to the development of personal growth through care.