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Grégoire L, Robinson TD, Choi JM, Greening SG. Conscious expectancy rather than associative strength elicits brain activity during single-cue fear conditioning. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci 2023; 18:nsad054. [PMID: 37756616 PMCID: PMC10597625 DOI: 10.1093/scan/nsad054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2021] [Revised: 07/14/2023] [Accepted: 09/21/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The neurocognitive processes underlying Pavlovian conditioning in humans are still largely debated. The conventional view is that conditioned responses (CRs) emerge automatically as a function of the contingencies between a conditioned stimulus (CS) and an unconditioned stimulus (US). As such, the associative strength model asserts that the frequency or amplitude of CRs reflects the strength of the CS-US associations. Alternatively, the expectation model asserts that the presentation of the CS triggers conscious expectancy of the US, which is responsible for the production of CRs. The present study tested the hypothesis that there are dissociable brain networks related to the expectancy and associative strength theories using a single-cue fear conditioning paradigm with a pseudo-random intermittent reinforcement schedule during functional magnetic resonance imaging. Participants' (n = 21) trial-by-trial expectations of receiving shock displayed a significant linear effect consistent with the expectation model. We also found a positive linear relationship between the expectancy model and activity in frontoparietal brain areas including the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (PFC) and dorsomedial PFC. While an exploratory analysis found a linear relationship consistent with the associated strength model in the insula and early visual cortex, our primary results are consistent with the view that conscious expectancy contributes to CRs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurent Grégoire
- Department of Psychology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA
- Department of Psychology and Brain Sciences, Texas A&M, College Station, TX 77843-4235, USA
| | - Tyler D Robinson
- Department of Psychology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA
| | - Jong Moon Choi
- Department of Psychology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA
- Statistical Methodology Division, Statistics Research Institute, Daejeon 35208, South Korea
| | - Steven G Greening
- Department of Psychology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA
- Department of Psychology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg R3T 2N2, Canada
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2
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Riels K, Ramos Campagnoli R, Thigpen N, Keil A. Oscillatory brain activity links experience to expectancy during associative learning. Psychophysiology 2022; 59:e13946. [PMID: 34622471 PMCID: PMC10150413 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.13946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2021] [Revised: 08/20/2021] [Accepted: 08/30/2021] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Associating a novel situation with a specific outcome involves a cascade of cognitive processes, including selecting relevant stimuli, forming predictions regarding expected outcomes, and updating memorized predictions based on experience. The present manuscript uses computational modeling and machine learning to test the hypothesis that alpha-band (8-12 Hz) oscillations are involved in the updating of expectations based on experience. Participants learned that a visual cue predicted an aversive loud noise with a probability of 50%. The Rescorla-Wagner model of associative learning explained trial-wise changes in self-reported noise expectancy as well as alpha power changes. Experience in the past trial and self-reported expectancy for the subsequent trial were accurately decoded based on the topographical distribution of alpha power at specific latencies. Decodable information during initial association formation and contingency report recurred when viewing the conditioned cue. Findings support the idea that alpha oscillations have multiple, temporally specific, roles in the formation of associations between cues and outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kierstin Riels
- Department of Psychology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Rafaela Ramos Campagnoli
- Department of Neurobiology, Institute of Biology, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, Brazil
| | - Nina Thigpen
- Department of Psychology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Andreas Keil
- Department of Psychology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
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3
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Conditioned up and down modulations of short latency gamma band oscillations in visual cortex during fear learning in humans. Sci Rep 2022; 12:2652. [PMID: 35173252 PMCID: PMC8850570 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-06596-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2021] [Accepted: 01/27/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Over the course of evolution, the human brain has been shaped to prioritize cues that signal potential danger. Thereby, the brain does not only favor species-specific prepared stimulus sets such as snakes or spiders but can learn associations between new cues and aversive outcomes. One important mechanism to achieve this is associated with learning induced plasticity changes in sensory cortex that optimizes the representation of motivationally relevant sensory stimuli. Animal studies have shown that the modulation of gamma band oscillations predicts plasticity changes in sensory cortices by shifting neurons’ responses to fear relevant features as acquired by Pavlovian fear conditioning. Here, we report conditioned gamma band modulations in humans during fear conditioning of orthogonally oriented sine gratings representing fear relevant and irrelevant conditioned cues. Thereby, pairing of a sine grating with an aversive loud noise not only increased short latency (during the first 180 ms) evoked visual gamma band responses, but was also accompanied by strong gamma power reductions for the fear irrelevant control grating. The current findings will be discussed in the light of recent neurobiological models of plasticity changes in sensory cortices and classic learning models such as the Rescorla–Wagner framework.
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Alves MR, Engedal K, Laks J, Rodrigues VD, Carneiro LSF, Alves Rodrigues ACDM, de Paula AMB, Monteiro-Junior RS. Acute response of prefrontal cortex in institutionalized older adults undergoing a single exergames session. IBRO Neurosci Rep 2021; 11:8-12. [PMID: 34939060 PMCID: PMC8664699 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibneur.2021.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2020] [Revised: 03/13/2021] [Accepted: 04/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Virtual reality-based exercise (exergames) improves cognition of the elderly but the neurophysiological effects are poorly understood. The hypothesis herein established is that an ultrafast neurophysiological adaptation occurs in prefrontal cortex of elderly after completion of a single exergames session. To reinforce the aforementioned hypothesis, individuals living in a Long-Term Care Home (LTCH) participated in the study and were randomly allocated into two groups (Virtual Reality Group, VRG, n = 5; and Active Control Group, ACG n = 5). VRG performed six exercises with exergames and ACG performed exercises with the same VRG movements but with no virtual reality. Assessment of frontal cortical activity at rest and during cognitive testing via electroencephalographic activity (EEG) was performed before and immediately after the intervention. Significant decrease in relative power of EEG (RPEEG) Beta brainwave (−29 ± 18%) in the left prefrontal cortex of VRG compared to ACG (4 ± 9%) (p = 0.007). A slight improvement on semantic fluency in VRG (ES=0.21) was noted. An ultrafast prefrontal cortical adaptation may occur as an effect of a single exergames session, causing a small improvement on cognition of institutionalized elderly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariana Rocha Alves
- Post-Graduate Program of Medicine (Neurology/Neuroscience), Federal Fluminense University, Niterói, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Knut Engedal
- Norwegian National Advisory Unit on Ageing and Health, Vestfold Hospital Trust, Tønsberg, Norway
| | - Jerson Laks
- Psychiatry Institute, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Vinícius Dias Rodrigues
- Department of Physical Education, State University of Montes Claros, Montes Claros, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Lara S F Carneiro
- Higher Institute of Educational Sciences (ISCE, Douro), Penafiel, Portugal.,University Institute of Maia (ISMAI), Maia, Portugal.,Research Centre in Sports Sciences, Health Sciences and Human Development, CIDESD, GERON Research Community, Portugal
| | | | - Alfredo Maurício B de Paula
- Post-graduate Program of Health Sciences, State University of Montes Claros, Montes Claros, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Renato Sobral Monteiro-Junior
- Post-Graduate Program of Medicine (Neurology/Neuroscience), Federal Fluminense University, Niterói, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.,Post-graduate Program of Health Sciences, State University of Montes Claros, Montes Claros, Minas Gerais, Brazil
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Santos-Mayo A, Moratti S, de Echegaray J, Susi G. A Model of the Early Visual System Based on Parallel Spike-Sequence Detection, Showing Orientation Selectivity. BIOLOGY 2021; 10:biology10080801. [PMID: 34440033 PMCID: PMC8389551 DOI: 10.3390/biology10080801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2021] [Revised: 08/12/2021] [Accepted: 08/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Simple Summary A computational model of primates’ early visual processing, showing orientation selectivity, is presented. The system importantly integrates two key elements: (1) a neuromorphic spike-decoding structure that considerably resembles the circuitry between layers IV and II/III of the primary visual cortex, both in topology and operation; (2) the plasticity of intrinsic excitability, to embed recent findings about the operation of the same area. The model is proposed as a tool for the analysis and reproduction of the orientation selectivity phenomenon, whose underlying neuronal-level computational mechanisms are today the subject of intense scrutiny. In response to rotated Gabor patches the model is able to exhibit realistic orientation tuning curves and to reproduce responses similar to those found in neurophysiological recordings from the primary visual cortex obtained under the same task, considering different stages of the network. This demonstrates its aptness to capture the mechanisms underlying the evoked response in the primary visual cortex. Our tool is available online, and can be expanded to other experiments using a dedicated software library developed by the authors, to elucidate the computational mechanisms underlying orientation selectivity. Abstract Since the first half of the twentieth century, numerous studies have been conducted on how the visual cortex encodes basic image features. One of the hallmarks of basic feature extraction is the phenomenon of orientation selectivity, of which the underlying neuronal-level computational mechanisms remain partially unclear despite being intensively investigated. In this work we present a reduced visual system model (RVSM) of the first level of scene analysis, involving the retina, the lateral geniculate nucleus and the primary visual cortex (V1), showing orientation selectivity. The detection core of the RVSM is the neuromorphic spike-decoding structure MNSD, which is able to learn and recognize parallel spike sequences and considerably resembles the neuronal microcircuits of V1 in both topology and operation. This structure is equipped with plasticity of intrinsic excitability to embed recent findings about V1 operation. The RVSM, which embeds 81 groups of MNSD arranged in 4 oriented columns, is tested using sets of rotated Gabor patches as input. Finally, synthetic visual evoked activity generated by the RVSM is compared with real neurophysiological signal from V1 area: (1) postsynaptic activity of human subjects obtained by magnetoencephalography and (2) spiking activity of macaques obtained by multi-tetrode arrays. The system is implemented using the NEST simulator. The results attest to a good level of resemblance between the model response and real neurophysiological recordings. As the RVSM is available online, and the model parameters can be customized by the user, we propose it as a tool to elucidate the computational mechanisms underlying orientation selectivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandro Santos-Mayo
- Laboratory of Cognitive and Computational Neuroscience, Center for Biomedical Technology, Technical University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain; (A.S.-M.); (S.M.); (J.d.E.)
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Complutense University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Stephan Moratti
- Laboratory of Cognitive and Computational Neuroscience, Center for Biomedical Technology, Technical University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain; (A.S.-M.); (S.M.); (J.d.E.)
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Complutense University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
- Laboratory of Clinical Neuroscience, Center for Biomedical Technology, Technical University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Javier de Echegaray
- Laboratory of Cognitive and Computational Neuroscience, Center for Biomedical Technology, Technical University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain; (A.S.-M.); (S.M.); (J.d.E.)
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Complutense University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Gianluca Susi
- Laboratory of Cognitive and Computational Neuroscience, Center for Biomedical Technology, Technical University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain; (A.S.-M.); (S.M.); (J.d.E.)
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Complutense University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
- Department of Civil Engineering and Computer Science, University of Rome “Tor Vergata”, 00133 Rome, Italy
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +34-(61)-86893399-79317
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de Echegaray J, Moratti S. Threat imminence modulates neural gain in attention and motor relevant brain circuits in humans. Psychophysiology 2021; 58:e13849. [PMID: 34031900 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.13849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2020] [Revised: 04/15/2021] [Accepted: 04/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Different levels of threat imminence elicit distinct computational strategies reflecting how the organism interacts with its environment in order to guarantee survival. Thereby, parasympathetically driven orienting and inhibition of on-going behavior in post-encounter situations and defense reactions in circa-strike conditions associated with sympathetically driven action preparation are typically observed across species. Here, we show that healthy humans are characterized by markedly variable individual orienting or defense response tendencies as indexed by differential heart rate (HR) changes during the passive viewing of unpleasant pictures. Critically, these HR response tendencies predict neural gain modulations in cortical attention and preparatory motor circuits as measured by neuromagnetic steady-state visual evoked fields (ssVEFs) and induced beta-band (19-30 Hz) desynchronization, respectively. Decelerative HR orienting responses were associated with increased ssVEF power in the parietal cortex and reduced beta-band desynchronization in pre-motor and motor areas. However, accelerative HR defense response tendencies covaried with reduced ssVEF power in the parietal cortex and lower beta-band desynchronization in cortical motor circuits. These results show that neural gain in attention- and motor-relevant brain areas is modulated by HR indexed threat imminence during the passive viewing of unpleasant pictures. The observed mutual ssVEF and beta-band power modulations in attention and motor brain circuits support the idea of two prevalent response tendencies characterized by orienting and motor inhibition or reduced stimulus processing and action initiation tendencies at different perceived threat imminence levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Javier de Echegaray
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain.,Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience, Center for Biomedical Technology, Polytechnic University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Stephan Moratti
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain.,Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience, Center for Biomedical Technology, Polytechnic University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain.,Laboratory of Clinical Neuroscience, Center for Biomedical Technology, Polytechnic University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
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Griffiths O, Gwinn OS, Russo S, Baetu I, Nicholls MER. Reinforcement history shapes primary visual cortical responses: An SSVEP study. Biol Psychol 2020; 158:108004. [PMID: 33290847 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2020.108004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2020] [Revised: 11/29/2020] [Accepted: 12/01/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Efficient learning requires allocating limited attentional resources to meaningful stimuli and away from irrelevant stimuli. This prioritization may occur via covert attention, evident in the activity of the visual cortex. We used steady-state visual evoked potentials (SSVEPs) to assess whether associability-driven changes in stimulus processing were evident in visuocortical responses. Participants were trained on a learned-predictiveness protocol, whereby one stimulus on each trial accurately predicted the correct response for that trial, and the other was irrelevant. In a second phase the task was arranged so that all cues were objectively predictive. Participants' overt attention (eye gaze) was affected by each cue's reinforcement history, as was their covert attention (SSVEP responses). These biases persisted into Phase 2 when all stimuli were objectively predictive, thereby demonstrating that learned attentional processes are evident in basic sensory processing, and exert an effect on covert attention above and beyond the effects of overt gaze bias.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oren Griffiths
- College of Education, Psychology, and Social Work, Flinders University, Adelaide, 5042, Australia.
| | - O Scott Gwinn
- College of Education, Psychology, and Social Work, Flinders University, Adelaide, 5042, Australia
| | - Salvatore Russo
- College of Education, Psychology, and Social Work, Flinders University, Adelaide, 5042, Australia
| | - Irina Baetu
- School of Psychology, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, 5005, Australia
| | - Michael E R Nicholls
- College of Education, Psychology, and Social Work, Flinders University, Adelaide, 5042, Australia
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Stegmann Y, Ahrens L, Pauli P, Keil A, Wieser MJ. Social aversive generalization learning sharpens the tuning of visuocortical neurons to facial identity cues. eLife 2020; 9:55204. [PMID: 32515731 PMCID: PMC7311168 DOI: 10.7554/elife.55204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2020] [Accepted: 06/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Defensive system activation promotes heightened perception of threat signals, and excessive attention to threat signals has been discussed as a contributory factor in the etiology of anxiety disorders. However, a mechanistic account of attentional modulation during fear-relevant processes, especially during fear generalization remains elusive. To test the hypothesis that social fear generalization prompts sharpened tuning in the visuocortical representation of social threat cues, 67 healthy participants underwent differential fear conditioning, followed by a generalization test in which participants viewed faces varying in similarity with the threat-associated face. We found that generalization of social threat sharpens visuocortical tuning of social threat cues, whereas ratings of fearfulness showed generalization, linearly decreasing with decreasing similarity to the threat-associated face. Moreover, individuals who reported greater anxiety in social situations also showed heightened sharpened tuning of visuocortical neurons to facial identity cues, indicating the behavioral relevance of visuocortical tuning during generalization learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yannik Stegmann
- Department of Psychology (Biological Psychology, Clinical Psychology, and Psychotherapy), University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Lea Ahrens
- Department of Psychology (Biological Psychology, Clinical Psychology, and Psychotherapy), University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Paul Pauli
- Department of Psychology (Biological Psychology, Clinical Psychology, and Psychotherapy), University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany.,Center for Mental Health, Medical Faculty, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Andreas Keil
- Center for the Study of Emotion and Attention, University of Florida, Gainesville, United States
| | - Matthias J Wieser
- Department of Psychology (Biological Psychology, Clinical Psychology, and Psychotherapy), University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany.,Department of Psychology, Education, and Child Studies, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam, Netherlands
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Bekhtereva V, Craddock M, Gundlach C, Müller MM. Rapid sensory gain with emotional distracters precedes attentional deployment from a foreground task. Neuroimage 2019; 202:116115. [PMID: 31442485 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.116115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2019] [Revised: 07/18/2019] [Accepted: 08/19/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The steady-state visual evoked potential (SSVEP), an electrophysiological marker of attentional resource allocation, has recently been demonstrated to serve as a neural signature of emotional content extraction from a rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP). SSVEP amplitude was reduced for streams of emotional relative to neutral scenes passively viewed at 6 Hz (~167 ms per image), but it was enhanced for emotional relative to neutral scenes when viewed as 4 Hz RSVP (250 ms per image). Here, we investigated whether these seemingly contradictory observations may be related to different dynamics in the allocation of attentional resources as a consequence of stimulation frequency. To this end, we advanced our distraction paradigm by presenting a visual foreground task consisting of randomly moving squares flickering at 15 Hz superimposed on task-irrelevant RSVP streams shown at 6 or 4 Hz, which could unpredictably switch from neutral to unpleasant content during the trial or remained neutral. Critically, our findings demonstrate that affective distractors captured attentional resources more strongly than their neutral counterparts, irrespective of whether they were presented at 6 or 4 Hz rate. Moreover, the emotion-dependent attentional deployment from the foreground task was temporally preceded by sustained sensory facilitation in response to emotional background images. Together, present findings provide evidence for rapid sustained visual facilitation but a rather slow attentional bias in favor of emotional distractors in early visual areas.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Matt Craddock
- Department of Psychology, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, UK
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