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Pantier R, Brown M, Han S, Paton K, Meek S, Montavon T, Shukeir N, McHugh T, Kelly DA, Hochepied T, Libert C, Jenuwein T, Burdon T, Bird A. MeCP2 binds to methylated DNA independently of phase separation and heterochromatin organisation. Nat Commun 2024; 15:3880. [PMID: 38719804 PMCID: PMC11079052 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-47395-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2023] [Accepted: 03/29/2024] [Indexed: 05/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Correlative evidence has suggested that the methyl-CpG-binding protein MeCP2 contributes to the formation of heterochromatin condensates via liquid-liquid phase separation. This interpretation has been reinforced by the observation that heterochromatin, DNA methylation and MeCP2 co-localise within prominent foci in mouse cells. The findings presented here revise this view. MeCP2 localisation is independent of heterochromatin as MeCP2 foci persist even when heterochromatin organisation is disrupted. Additionally, MeCP2 foci fail to show hallmarks of phase separation in live cells. Importantly, we find that mouse cellular models are highly atypical as MeCP2 distribution is diffuse in most mammalian species, including humans. Notably, MeCP2 foci are absent in Mus spretus which is a mouse subspecies lacking methylated satellite DNA repeats. We conclude that MeCP2 has no intrinsic tendency to form condensates and its localisation is independent of heterochromatin. Instead, the distribution of MeCP2 in the nucleus is primarily determined by global DNA methylation patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raphaël Pantier
- The Wellcome Centre for Cell Biology, University of Edinburgh, Michael Swann Building, Max Born Crescent, The King's Buildings, Edinburgh, EH9 3BF, UK
| | - Megan Brown
- The Wellcome Centre for Cell Biology, University of Edinburgh, Michael Swann Building, Max Born Crescent, The King's Buildings, Edinburgh, EH9 3BF, UK
| | - Sicheng Han
- The Wellcome Centre for Cell Biology, University of Edinburgh, Michael Swann Building, Max Born Crescent, The King's Buildings, Edinburgh, EH9 3BF, UK
| | - Katie Paton
- The Wellcome Centre for Cell Biology, University of Edinburgh, Michael Swann Building, Max Born Crescent, The King's Buildings, Edinburgh, EH9 3BF, UK
| | - Stephen Meek
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian, EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Thomas Montavon
- Max Planck Institute of Immunobiology and Epigenetics, Stübeweg 51, 79108, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Nicholas Shukeir
- Max Planck Institute of Immunobiology and Epigenetics, Stübeweg 51, 79108, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Toni McHugh
- The Wellcome Centre for Cell Biology, University of Edinburgh, Michael Swann Building, Max Born Crescent, The King's Buildings, Edinburgh, EH9 3BF, UK
| | - David A Kelly
- The Wellcome Centre for Cell Biology, University of Edinburgh, Michael Swann Building, Max Born Crescent, The King's Buildings, Edinburgh, EH9 3BF, UK
| | - Tino Hochepied
- Center for Inflammation Research, VIB, Ghent, Belgium
- Department of Biomedical Molecular Biology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Claude Libert
- Center for Inflammation Research, VIB, Ghent, Belgium
- Department of Biomedical Molecular Biology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Thomas Jenuwein
- Max Planck Institute of Immunobiology and Epigenetics, Stübeweg 51, 79108, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Tom Burdon
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian, EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Adrian Bird
- The Wellcome Centre for Cell Biology, University of Edinburgh, Michael Swann Building, Max Born Crescent, The King's Buildings, Edinburgh, EH9 3BF, UK.
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Martinez D, Jiang E, Zhou Z. Overcoming genetic and cellular complexity to study the pathophysiology of X-linked intellectual disabilities. J Neurodev Disord 2024; 16:5. [PMID: 38424476 PMCID: PMC10902969 DOI: 10.1186/s11689-024-09517-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2023] [Accepted: 02/04/2024] [Indexed: 03/02/2024] Open
Abstract
X-linked genetic causes of intellectual disability (ID) account for a substantial proportion of cases and remain poorly understood, in part due to the heterogeneous expression of X-linked genes in females. This is because most genes on the X chromosome are subject to random X chromosome inactivation (XCI) during early embryonic development, which results in a mosaic pattern of gene expression for a given X-linked mutant allele. This mosaic expression produces substantial complexity, especially when attempting to study the already complicated neural circuits that underly behavior, thus impeding the understanding of disease-related pathophysiology and the development of therapeutics. Here, we review a few selected X-linked forms of ID that predominantly affect heterozygous females and the current obstacles for developing effective therapies for such disorders. We also propose a genetic strategy to overcome the complexity presented by mosaicism in heterozygous females and highlight specific tools for studying synaptic and circuit mechanisms, many of which could be shared across multiple forms of intellectual disability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dayne Martinez
- Department of Genetics, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19102, USA
- Medical Scientist Training Program, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19102, USA
| | - Evan Jiang
- Department of Genetics, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19102, USA
- Medical Scientist Training Program, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19102, USA
| | - Zhaolan Zhou
- Department of Genetics, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19102, USA.
- Medical Scientist Training Program, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19102, USA.
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19102, USA.
- Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities Research Center, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA.
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3
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Schmidt A, Zhang H, Schmitt S, Rausch C, Popp O, Chen J, Cmarko D, Butter F, Dittmar G, Lermyte F, Cardoso MC. The Proteomic Composition and Organization of Constitutive Heterochromatin in Mouse Tissues. Cells 2024; 13:139. [PMID: 38247831 PMCID: PMC10814525 DOI: 10.3390/cells13020139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2023] [Revised: 12/13/2023] [Accepted: 01/09/2024] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Pericentric heterochromatin (PCH) forms spatio-temporarily distinct compartments and affects chromosome organization and stability. Albeit some of its components are known, an elucidation of its proteome and how it differs between tissues in vivo is lacking. Here, we find that PCH compartments are dynamically organized in a tissue-specific manner, possibly reflecting compositional differences. As the mouse brain and liver exhibit very different PCH architecture, we isolated native PCH fractions from these tissues, analyzed their protein compositions using quantitative mass spectrometry, and compared them to identify common and tissue-specific PCH proteins. In addition to heterochromatin-enriched proteins, the PCH proteome includes RNA/transcription and membrane-related proteins, which showed lower abundance than PCH-enriched proteins. Thus, we applied a cut-off of PCH-unspecific candidates based on their abundance and validated PCH-enriched proteins. Amongst the hits, MeCP2 was classified into brain PCH-enriched proteins, while linker histone H1 was not. We found that H1 and MeCP2 compete to bind to PCH and regulate PCH organization in opposite ways. Altogether, our workflow of unbiased PCH isolation, quantitative mass spectrometry, and validation-based analysis allowed the identification of proteins that are common and tissue-specifically enriched at PCH. Further investigation of selected hits revealed their opposing role in heterochromatin higher-order architecture in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annika Schmidt
- Cell Biology and Epigenetics, Department of Biology, Technical University of Darmstadt, 64287 Darmstadt, Germany (S.S.)
| | - Hui Zhang
- Cell Biology and Epigenetics, Department of Biology, Technical University of Darmstadt, 64287 Darmstadt, Germany (S.S.)
| | - Stephanie Schmitt
- Cell Biology and Epigenetics, Department of Biology, Technical University of Darmstadt, 64287 Darmstadt, Germany (S.S.)
| | - Cathia Rausch
- Cell Biology and Epigenetics, Department of Biology, Technical University of Darmstadt, 64287 Darmstadt, Germany (S.S.)
| | - Oliver Popp
- Proteomics Platform, Max-Delbrueck-Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association, 13125 Berlin, Germany
| | - Jiaxuan Chen
- Institute of Molecular Biology (IMB), 55128 Mainz, Germany
| | - Dusan Cmarko
- Institute of Biology and Medical Genetics, First Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and General University Hospital in Prague, 128 00 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Falk Butter
- Institute of Molecular Biology (IMB), 55128 Mainz, Germany
| | - Gunnar Dittmar
- Proteomics Platform, Max-Delbrueck-Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association, 13125 Berlin, Germany
| | - Frederik Lermyte
- Clemens-Schöpf Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, Department of Chemistry, Technical University of Darmstadt, 64287 Darmstadt, Germany
| | - M. Cristina Cardoso
- Cell Biology and Epigenetics, Department of Biology, Technical University of Darmstadt, 64287 Darmstadt, Germany (S.S.)
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4
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Liu S, Zheng P, Wang CY, Jia BB, Zemke NR, Ren B, Zhuang X. Cell-type-specific 3D-genome organization and transcription regulation in the brain. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.12.04.570024. [PMID: 38105994 PMCID: PMC10723369 DOI: 10.1101/2023.12.04.570024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2023]
Abstract
3D organization of the genome plays a critical role in regulating gene expression. However, it remains unclear how chromatin organization differs among different cell types in the brain. Here we used genome-scale DNA and RNA imaging to investigate 3D-genome organization in transcriptionally distinct cell types in the primary motor cortex of the mouse brain. We uncovered a wide spectrum of differences in the nuclear architecture and 3D-genome organization among different cell types, ranging from the physical size of the cell nucleus to the active-inactive chromatin compartmentalization and radial positioning of chromatin loci within the nucleus. These cell-type-dependent variations in nuclear architecture and chromatin organization exhibited strong correlation with both total transcriptional activity of the cell and transcriptional regulation of cell-type-specific marker genes. Moreover, we found that the methylated-DNA-binding protein MeCP2 regulates transcription in a divergent manner, depending on the nuclear radial positions of chromatin loci, through modulating active-inactive chromatin compartmentalization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiwei Liu
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Department of Physics, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Pu Zheng
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Department of Physics, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Cosmos Yuqi Wang
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Department of Physics, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Bojing Blair Jia
- Bioinformatics and Systems Biology Graduate Program, Medical Scientist Training Program, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Nathan R. Zemke
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine and Center for Epigenomics, University of California, San Diego School of Medicine, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Bing Ren
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine and Center for Epigenomics, University of California, San Diego School of Medicine, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Xiaowei Zhuang
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Department of Physics, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
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5
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Zhou J, Cattoglio C, Shao Y, Tirumala HP, Vetralla C, Bajikar SS, Li Y, Chen H, Wang Q, Wu Z, Tang B, Zahabiyon M, Bajic A, Meng X, Ferrie JJ, LaGrone A, Zhang P, Kim JJ, Tang J, Liu Z, Darzacq X, Heintz N, Tjian R, Zoghbi HY. A novel pathogenic mutation of MeCP2 impairs chromatin association independent of protein levels. Genes Dev 2023; 37:883-900. [PMID: 37890975 PMCID: PMC10691473 DOI: 10.1101/gad.350733.123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2023] [Accepted: 10/05/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023]
Abstract
Loss-of-function mutations in MECP2 cause Rett syndrome (RTT), a severe neurological disorder that mainly affects girls. Mutations in MECP2 do occur in males occasionally and typically cause severe encephalopathy and premature lethality. Recently, we identified a missense mutation (c.353G>A, p.Gly118Glu [G118E]), which has never been seen before in MECP2, in a young boy who suffered from progressive motor dysfunction and developmental delay. To determine whether this variant caused the clinical symptoms and study its functional consequences, we established two disease models, including human neurons from patient-derived iPSCs and a knock-in mouse line. G118E mutation partially reduces MeCP2 abundance and its DNA binding, and G118E mice manifest RTT-like symptoms seen in the patient, affirming the pathogenicity of this mutation. Using live-cell and single-molecule imaging, we found that G118E mutation alters MeCP2's chromatin interaction properties in live neurons independently of its effect on protein levels. Here we report the generation and characterization of RTT models of a male hypomorphic variant and reveal new insight into the mechanism by which this pathological mutation affects MeCP2's chromatin dynamics. Our ability to quantify protein dynamics in disease models lays the foundation for harnessing high-resolution single-molecule imaging as the next frontier for developing innovative therapies for RTT and other diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Zhou
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute at Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
| | - Claudia Cattoglio
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, Li Ka Shing Center for Biomedical and Health Sciences, California Institute for Regenerative Medicine (CIRM) Center of Excellence, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Berkeley, California 94720, USA
| | - Yingyao Shao
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute at Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
- Program in Developmental Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
| | - Harini P Tirumala
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute at Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
| | - Carlo Vetralla
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, Li Ka Shing Center for Biomedical and Health Sciences, California Institute for Regenerative Medicine (CIRM) Center of Excellence, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Berkeley, California 94720, USA
- School of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milan-Bicocca, Milano 20126, Italy
| | - Sameer S Bajikar
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute at Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
| | - Yan Li
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute at Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
| | - Hu Chen
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute at Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
| | - Qi Wang
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute at Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
| | - Zhenyu Wu
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute at Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
| | - Bing Tang
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute at Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
| | - Mahla Zahabiyon
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute at Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
| | - Aleksandar Bajic
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute at Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
| | - Xiangling Meng
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute at Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
| | - Jack J Ferrie
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, Li Ka Shing Center for Biomedical and Health Sciences, California Institute for Regenerative Medicine (CIRM) Center of Excellence, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Berkeley, California 94720, USA
| | - Anel LaGrone
- Advanced Technology Cores, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
| | - Ping Zhang
- Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
| | - Jean J Kim
- Advanced Technology Cores, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
| | - Jianrong Tang
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute at Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
| | - Zhandong Liu
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute at Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
| | - Xavier Darzacq
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, Li Ka Shing Center for Biomedical and Health Sciences, California Institute for Regenerative Medicine (CIRM) Center of Excellence, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, USA
| | - Nathaniel Heintz
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, The Rockefeller University, New York, New York 10065, USA
| | - Robert Tjian
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, Li Ka Shing Center for Biomedical and Health Sciences, California Institute for Regenerative Medicine (CIRM) Center of Excellence, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Berkeley, California 94720, USA
| | - Huda Y Zoghbi
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030, USA;
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute at Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
- Program in Developmental Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
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6
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Bajikar SS, Anderson AG, Zhou J, Durham MA, Trostle AJ, Wan YW, Liu Z, Zoghbi HY. MeCP2 regulates Gdf11, a dosage-sensitive gene critical for neurological function. eLife 2023; 12:e83806. [PMID: 36848184 PMCID: PMC9977283 DOI: 10.7554/elife.83806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2022] [Accepted: 02/09/2023] [Indexed: 03/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Loss- and gain-of-function of MeCP2 causes Rett syndrome (RTT) and MECP2 duplication syndrome (MDS), respectively. MeCP2 binds methyl-cytosines to finely tune gene expression in the brain, but identifying genes robustly regulated by MeCP2 has been difficult. By integrating multiple transcriptomics datasets, we revealed that MeCP2 finely regulates growth differentiation factor 11 (Gdf11). Gdf11 is down-regulated in RTT mouse models and, conversely, up-regulated in MDS mouse models. Strikingly, genetically normalizing Gdf11 dosage levels improved several behavioral deficits in a mouse model of MDS. Next, we discovered that losing one copy of Gdf11 alone was sufficient to cause multiple neurobehavioral deficits in mice, most notably hyperactivity and decreased learning and memory. This decrease in learning and memory was not due to changes in proliferation or numbers of progenitor cells in the hippocampus. Lastly, loss of one copy of Gdf11 decreased survival in mice, corroborating its putative role in aging. Our data demonstrate that Gdf11 dosage is important for brain function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sameer S Bajikar
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of MedicineHoustonUnited States
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute at Texas Children’s HospitalHoustonUnited States
| | - Ashley G Anderson
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of MedicineHoustonUnited States
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute at Texas Children’s HospitalHoustonUnited States
| | - Jian Zhou
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of MedicineHoustonUnited States
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute at Texas Children’s HospitalHoustonUnited States
| | - Mark A Durham
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute at Texas Children’s HospitalHoustonUnited States
- Program in Developmental Biology, Baylor College of MedicineHoustonUnited States
- Medical Scientist Training Program, Baylor College of MedicineHoustonUnited States
| | - Alexander J Trostle
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute at Texas Children’s HospitalHoustonUnited States
- Department of Pediatrics, Baylor College of MedicineHoustonUnited States
| | - Ying-Wooi Wan
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of MedicineHoustonUnited States
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute at Texas Children’s HospitalHoustonUnited States
| | - Zhandong Liu
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute at Texas Children’s HospitalHoustonUnited States
- Department of Pediatrics, Baylor College of MedicineHoustonUnited States
| | - Huda Y Zoghbi
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of MedicineHoustonUnited States
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute at Texas Children’s HospitalHoustonUnited States
- Program in Developmental Biology, Baylor College of MedicineHoustonUnited States
- Department of Pediatrics, Baylor College of MedicineHoustonUnited States
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Baylor College of MedicineHoustonUnited States
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7
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Takeguchi R, Kuroda M, Tanaka R, Suzuki N, Akaba Y, Tsujimura K, Itoh M, Takahashi S. Structural and functional changes in the brains of patients with Rett syndrome: A multimodal MRI study. J Neurol Sci 2022; 441:120381. [PMID: 36027642 DOI: 10.1016/j.jns.2022.120381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2022] [Revised: 08/05/2022] [Accepted: 08/14/2022] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To clarify the relationship between structural and functional changes in the brains of patients with Rett syndrome (RTT) using multimodal magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). METHODS Nine subjects with typical RTT (RTTs) and an equal number of healthy controls (HCs) underwent structural MRI, diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), and resting-state functional MRI (rs-fMRI). The measurements obtained from each modality were statistically compared between RTTs and HCs and examined for their correlation with the clinical severity of RTTs. RESULTS Structural MRI imaging revealed volume reductions in most cortical and subcortical regions of the brain. Remarkable volume reductions were observed in the frontal and parietal lobes, cerebellum, and subcortical regions including the putamen, hippocampus, and corpus callosum. DTI analysis revealed decreased white matter integrity in broad regions of the brain. Fractional anisotropy values were greatly decreased in the superior longitudinal fasciculus, corpus callosum, and middle cerebellar peduncle. Rs-fMRI analysis showed decreased functional connectivity in the interhemispheric dorsal attention network, and between the visual and cerebellar networks. The clinical severity of RTTs correlated with the volume reduction of the frontal lobe and cerebellum, and with changes in DTI indices in the fronto-occipital fasciculus, corpus callosum, and cerebellar peduncles. CONCLUSION Regional volume and white matter integrity of RTT brains were reduced in broad areas, while most functional connections remained intact. Notably, two functional connectivities, between cerebral hemispheres and between the cerebrum and cerebellum, were decreased in RTT brains, which may reflect the structural changes in these brain regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryo Takeguchi
- Department of Pediatrics, Asahikawa Medical University, Hokkaido 078-8510, Japan.
| | - Mami Kuroda
- Department of Pediatrics, Asahikawa Medical University, Hokkaido 078-8510, Japan
| | - Ryosuke Tanaka
- Department of Pediatrics, Asahikawa Medical University, Hokkaido 078-8510, Japan
| | - Nao Suzuki
- Department of Pediatrics, Asahikawa Medical University, Hokkaido 078-8510, Japan
| | - Yuichi Akaba
- Department of Pediatrics, Asahikawa Medical University, Hokkaido 078-8510, Japan; Group of Brain Function and Development, Nagoya University Neuroscience Institute of the Graduate School of Science, Nagoya, Aichi 464-8602, Japan; Research Unit for Developmental Disorders, Institute for Advanced Research, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Aichi 464-8602, Japan
| | - Keita Tsujimura
- Group of Brain Function and Development, Nagoya University Neuroscience Institute of the Graduate School of Science, Nagoya, Aichi 464-8602, Japan; Research Unit for Developmental Disorders, Institute for Advanced Research, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Aichi 464-8602, Japan
| | - Masayuki Itoh
- Department of Mental Retardation and Birth Defect Research, National Institute of Neuroscience, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Tokyo 187-8502, Japan
| | - Satoru Takahashi
- Department of Pediatrics, Asahikawa Medical University, Hokkaido 078-8510, Japan
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MeCP2 inhibits ischemic neuronal injury by enhancing methylation of the FOXO3a promoter to repress the SPRY2-ZEB1 axis. Exp Mol Med 2022; 54:1076-1085. [PMID: 35915222 PMCID: PMC9440071 DOI: 10.1038/s12276-022-00790-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2020] [Revised: 03/21/2022] [Accepted: 04/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
AbstractMethyl CpG binding protein 2 (MeCP2) is involved in nerve regeneration following ischemic stroke, but the related mechanism remains unclear. Here, we found low MeCP2 expression in hippocampal tissues. Using functional analysis, we demonstrated that MeCP2 accelerated FOXO3a methylation and subsequently inhibited its expression, thus repressing the apoptosis of neuronal cells. Mechanistically, FOXO3a could bind to the promoter region of SPRY2, consequently inducing its transcription and promoting the expression of the downstream target gene ZEB1. Altogether, our study revealed that overexpression of MeCP2 can protect mice against ischemic brain injury via disruption of the FOXO3a/SPRY2/ZEB1 signaling axis. Our results identify ectopic expression of MeCP2 as a therapeutic target in ischemic stroke.
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9
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Expression, Purification, Characterization and Cellular Uptake of MeCP2 Variants. Protein J 2022; 41:345-359. [PMID: 35546650 PMCID: PMC9122891 DOI: 10.1007/s10930-022-10054-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
The transcriptional regulator Methyl-CpG-binding protein 2 (MeCP2) is an intrinsically disordered protein, mutations in which, are implicated in the onset of Rett Syndrome, a severe and debilitating neurodevelopmental disorder. Delivery of this protein fused to the cell-penetrating peptide TAT could allow for the intracellular replenishment of functional MeCP2 and hence potentially serve as a prospective Rett Syndrome therapy. This work outlines the expression, purification and characterization of various TAT-MeCP2 constructs as well as their full-length and shortened eGFP fusion variants. The latter two constructs were used for intracellular uptake studies with subsequent analysis via western blotting and live-cell imaging. All purified MeCP2 samples exhibited high degree of stability and very little aggregation propensity. Full length and minimal TAT-MeCP2-eGFP were found to efficiently transduce into human dermal and murine fibroblasts and localize to cell nuclei. These findings clearly support the utility of MeCP2-based protein replacement therapy as a potential Rett Syndrome treatment option.
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10
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Steinkellner H, Kempaiah P, Beribisky AV, Pferschy S, Etzler J, Huber A, Sarne V, Neuhaus W, Kuttke M, Bauer J, Arunachalam JP, Christodoulou J, Dressel R, Mildner A, Prinz M, Laccone F. TAT-MeCP2 protein variants rescue disease phenotypes in human and mouse models of Rett syndrome. Int J Biol Macromol 2022; 209:972-983. [PMID: 35460749 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2022.04.080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2022] [Revised: 04/08/2022] [Accepted: 04/11/2022] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Rett syndrome (RTT) is a neurodevelopmental disorder caused by pathogenic variants leading to functional impairment of the MeCP2 protein. Here, we used purified recombinant MeCP2e1 and MeCP2e2 protein variants fused to a TAT protein transduction domain (PTD) to evaluate their transduction ability into RTT patient-derived fibroblasts and the ability to carry out their cellular function. We then assessed their transduction ability and therapeutic effects in a RTT mouse model. In vitro, TAT-MeCP2e2-eGFP reversed the pathological hyperacetylation of histones H3K9 and H4K16, a hallmark of abolition of MeCP2 function. In vivo, intraperitoneal administration of TAT-MeCP2e1 and TAT-MeCP2e2 extended the lifespan of Mecp2-/y mice by >50%. This was accompanied by rescue of hippocampal CA2 neuron size in animals treated with TAT-MeCP2e1. Taken together, these findings provide a strong indication that recombinant TAT-MeCP2 can reach mouse brains following peripheral injection and can ameliorate the phenotype of RTT mouse models. Thus, our study serves as a first step in the development of a potentially novel RTT therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannes Steinkellner
- Center for Pathobiochemistry and Genetics, Institute of Medical Genetics, Medical University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Prakasha Kempaiah
- Institute for Human Genetics, Georg August University, Universitätsmedizin Göttingen, 37073 Göttingen, Germany; Division of Infectious Diseases, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Alexander V Beribisky
- Center for Pathobiochemistry and Genetics, Institute of Medical Genetics, Medical University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Sandra Pferschy
- Center for Pathobiochemistry and Genetics, Institute of Medical Genetics, Medical University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Julia Etzler
- Center for Pathobiochemistry and Genetics, Institute of Medical Genetics, Medical University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Anna Huber
- Center for Pathobiochemistry and Genetics, Institute of Medical Genetics, Medical University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria; Vienna Doctoral School of Pharmaceutical, Nutritional and Sport Sciences (PhaNuSpo), University of Vienna, Althanstraße 14, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Victoria Sarne
- Center for Pathobiochemistry and Genetics, Institute of Medical Genetics, Medical University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Winfried Neuhaus
- AIT Austrian Institute of Technology GmbH, Competence Center Molecular Diagnostics, 1210 Vienna, Austria
| | - Mario Kuttke
- Institute for Vascular Biology, Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Medical University Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Jan Bauer
- Department of Neuroimmunology, Center for Brain Research, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Jayamuruga P Arunachalam
- Institute for Human Genetics, Georg August University, Universitätsmedizin Göttingen, 37073 Göttingen, Germany; Division of Infectious Diseases, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA; Department of Medicine, University of Toronto, Medical Sciences Building, 1 King's College Circle, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - John Christodoulou
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute and Department of Paediatrics, University of Melbourne, Discipline of Child & Adolescent Health, Sydney Medical School, Australia
| | - Ralf Dressel
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Georg August University, Universitätsmedizin Göttingen, 37073 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Alexander Mildner
- Institute of Neuropathology, Medical Faculty, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany; Center for Basics in NeuroModulation (NeuroModulBasics), Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany; Signalling Research Centres BIOSS and CIBSS, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Marco Prinz
- Institute of Neuropathology, Medical Faculty, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany; Center for Basics in NeuroModulation (NeuroModulBasics), Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany; Signalling Research Centres BIOSS and CIBSS, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Franco Laccone
- Center for Pathobiochemistry and Genetics, Institute of Medical Genetics, Medical University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria; Institute for Human Genetics, Georg August University, Universitätsmedizin Göttingen, 37073 Göttingen, Germany; Department of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Georg August University, Universitätsmedizin Göttingen, 37073 Göttingen, Germany.
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11
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Zhang H, Romero H, Schmidt A, Gagova K, Qin W, Bertulat B, Lehmkuhl A, Milden M, Eck M, Meckel T, Leonhardt H, Cardoso MC. MeCP2-induced heterochromatin organization is driven by oligomerization-based liquid–liquid phase separation and restricted by DNA methylation. Nucleus 2022; 13:1-34. [PMID: 35156529 PMCID: PMC8855868 DOI: 10.1080/19491034.2021.2024691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Hui Zhang
- Department of Biology, Technical University of Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Hector Romero
- Department of Biology, Technical University of Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Annika Schmidt
- Department of Biology, Technical University of Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Katalina Gagova
- Department of Biology, Technical University of Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Weihua Qin
- Faculty of Biology, Ludwig Maximilians University Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Bianca Bertulat
- Department of Biology, Technical University of Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Anne Lehmkuhl
- Department of Biology, Technical University of Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Manuela Milden
- Department of Biology, Technical University of Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Malte Eck
- Department of Biology, Technical University of Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Tobias Meckel
- Department of Chemistry, Technical University of Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Heinrich Leonhardt
- Faculty of Biology, Ludwig Maximilians University Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - M. Cristina Cardoso
- Department of Biology, Technical University of Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany
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12
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Abstract
A motif of dinucleotide repeats in the genome may be associated with Rett syndrome
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Zhou
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Houston, TX, USA
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Huda Zoghbi
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Houston, TX, USA
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
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13
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Sharifi O, Yasui DH. The Molecular Functions of MeCP2 in Rett Syndrome Pathology. Front Genet 2021; 12:624290. [PMID: 33968128 PMCID: PMC8102816 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2021.624290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2020] [Accepted: 02/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
MeCP2 protein, encoded by the MECP2 gene, binds to DNA and affects transcription. Outside of this activity the true range of MeCP2 function is still not entirely clear. As MECP2 gene mutations cause the neurodevelopmental disorder Rett syndrome in 1 in 10,000 female births, much of what is known about the biologic function of MeCP2 comes from studying human cell culture models and rodent models with Mecp2 gene mutations. In this review, the full scope of MeCP2 research available in the NIH Pubmed (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/) data base to date is considered. While not all original research can be mentioned due to space limitations, the main aspects of MeCP2 and Rett syndrome research are discussed while highlighting the work of individual researchers and research groups. First, the primary functions of MeCP2 relevant to Rett syndrome are summarized and explored. Second, the conflicting evidence and controversies surrounding emerging aspects of MeCP2 biology are examined. Next, the most obvious gaps in MeCP2 research studies are noted. Finally, the most recent discoveries in MeCP2 and Rett syndrome research are explored with a focus on the potential and pitfalls of novel treatments and therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Osman Sharifi
- LaSalle Laboratory, Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, UC Davis School of Medicine, Davis, CA, United States
| | - Dag H Yasui
- LaSalle Laboratory, Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, UC Davis School of Medicine, Davis, CA, United States
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14
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Gomes AR, Fernandes TG, Cabral JM, Diogo MM. Modeling Rett Syndrome with Human Pluripotent Stem Cells: Mechanistic Outcomes and Future Clinical Perspectives. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:3751. [PMID: 33916879 PMCID: PMC8038474 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22073751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2021] [Revised: 03/23/2021] [Accepted: 04/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Rett syndrome (RTT) is a neurodevelopmental disorder caused by mutations in the gene encoding the methyl-CpG-binding protein 2 (MeCP2). Among many different roles, MeCP2 has a high phenotypic impact during the different stages of brain development. Thus, it is essential to intensively investigate the function of MeCP2, and its regulated targets, to better understand the mechanisms of the disease and inspire the development of possible therapeutic strategies. Several animal models have greatly contributed to these studies, but more recently human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) have been providing a promising alternative for the study of RTT. The rapid evolution in the field of hPSC culture allowed first the development of 2D-based neuronal differentiation protocols, and more recently the generation of 3D human brain organoid models, a more complex approach that better recapitulates human neurodevelopment in vitro. Modeling RTT using these culture platforms, either with patient-specific human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) or genetically-modified hPSCs, has certainly contributed to a better understanding of the onset of RTT and the disease phenotype, ultimately allowing the development of high throughput drugs screening tests for potential clinical translation. In this review, we first provide a brief summary of the main neurological features of RTT and the impact of MeCP2 mutations in the neuropathophysiology of this disease. Then, we provide a thorough revision of the more recent advances and future prospects of RTT modeling with human neural cells derived from hPSCs, obtained using both 2D and organoids culture systems, and its contribution for the current and future clinical trials for RTT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Rita Gomes
- Department of Bioengineering and IBB-Institute for Bioengineering and Biosciences, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal; (A.R.G.); (T.G.F.); (J.M.S.C.)
- Associate Laboratory i4HB-Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular-João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Lisboa, 1649-028 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Tiago G. Fernandes
- Department of Bioengineering and IBB-Institute for Bioengineering and Biosciences, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal; (A.R.G.); (T.G.F.); (J.M.S.C.)
- Associate Laboratory i4HB-Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Joaquim M.S. Cabral
- Department of Bioengineering and IBB-Institute for Bioengineering and Biosciences, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal; (A.R.G.); (T.G.F.); (J.M.S.C.)
- Associate Laboratory i4HB-Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Maria Margarida Diogo
- Department of Bioengineering and IBB-Institute for Bioengineering and Biosciences, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal; (A.R.G.); (T.G.F.); (J.M.S.C.)
- Associate Laboratory i4HB-Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal
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15
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Imaizumi Y, Feil R. Emerging chromatin structural roles of the methyl-CpG binding protein MeCP2. Epigenomics 2021; 13:405-409. [PMID: 33685235 DOI: 10.2217/epi-2021-0053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Yui Imaizumi
- Institute of Molecular Genetics of Montpellier (IGMM), Centre National de Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), 1919 route de Mende, 34293 Montpellier, France.,University of Montpellier, 163 rue Auguste Broussonnet, 34090 Montpellier, France
| | - Robert Feil
- Institute of Molecular Genetics of Montpellier (IGMM), Centre National de Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), 1919 route de Mende, 34293 Montpellier, France.,University of Montpellier, 163 rue Auguste Broussonnet, 34090 Montpellier, France
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16
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Achilly NP, He LJ, Kim OA, Ohmae S, Wojaczynski GJ, Lin T, Sillitoe RV, Medina JF, Zoghbi HY. Deleting Mecp2 from the cerebellum rather than its neuronal subtypes causes a delay in motor learning in mice. eLife 2021; 10:64833. [PMID: 33494858 PMCID: PMC7837679 DOI: 10.7554/elife.64833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2020] [Accepted: 01/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Rett syndrome is a devastating childhood neurological disorder caused by mutations in MECP2. Of the many symptoms, motor deterioration is a significant problem for patients. In mice, deleting Mecp2 from the cortex or basal ganglia causes motor dysfunction, hypoactivity, and tremor, which are abnormalities observed in patients. Little is known about the function of Mecp2 in the cerebellum, a brain region critical for motor function. Here we show that deleting Mecp2 from the cerebellum, but not from its neuronal subtypes, causes a delay in motor learning that is overcome by additional training. We observed irregular firing rates of Purkinje cells and altered heterochromatin architecture within the cerebellum of knockout mice. These findings demonstrate that the motor deficits present in Rett syndrome arise, in part, from cerebellar dysfunction. For Rett syndrome and other neurodevelopmental disorders, our results highlight the importance of understanding which brain regions contribute to disease phenotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan P Achilly
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, United States.,Program in Developmental Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States.,Medical Scientist Training Program, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States
| | - Ling-Jie He
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, United States.,Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States
| | - Olivia A Kim
- Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States
| | - Shogo Ohmae
- Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States
| | | | - Tao Lin
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, United States.,Department of Pathology and Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States
| | - Roy V Sillitoe
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, United States.,Program in Developmental Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States.,Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States.,Department of Pathology and Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States
| | - Javier F Medina
- Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States
| | - Huda Y Zoghbi
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, United States.,Program in Developmental Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States.,Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States.,Department of Pathology and Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States.,Department of Neurology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States.,Department of Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States
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