Prolonged deficits in parvalbumin neuron stimulation-evoked network activity despite recovery of dendritic structure and excitability in the somatosensory cortex following global ischemia in mice

Enhanced Small Extracellular Vesicle Uptake by Activated Interneurons Improves Stroke Recovery in Mice

Neuronal circuitry remodelling, which comprises excitatory and inhibitory neurons, is critical for improving neurological outcomes after a stroke. Preclinical studies have shown that small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) have a therapeutic effect on stroke recovery. However, it is highly challenging to use sEVs to specifically target individual neuronal populations to enhance neuronal circuitry remodelling after stroke. In the present study, using a chemogenetic approach to specifically activate peri-infarct cortical interneurons in combination with the administration of sEVs derived from cerebral endothelial cells (CEC-sEVs), we showed that the CEC-sEVs were preferentially taken up by the activated neurons, leading to significant improvement of functional outcome after stroke, which was associated with augmentation of peri-infarct cortical axonal/dendritic outgrowth and of axonal remodelling of the corticospinal tract. The ultrastructural and Western blot analyses revealed that neurons with internalization of CEC-sEVs exhibited significantly reduced numbers of damaged mitochondria and proteins that mediate dysfunctional mitochondria, respectively. Together, these data indicate that the augmented uptake of CEC-sEVs by activated peri-infarct cortical interneurons facilitates neuronal circuitry remodelling and functional recovery after stroke, which has the potential to be a novel therapy for improving stroke recovery.

A molecular brain atlas reveals cellular shifts during the repair phase of stroke

Ischemic stroke triggers a cascade of pathological events that affect multiple cell types and often lead to incomplete functional recovery. Despite advances in single-cell technologies, the molecular and cellular responses that contribute to long-term post-stroke impairment remain poorly understood. To gain better insight into the underlying mechanisms, we generated a single-cell transcriptomic atlas from distinct brain regions using a mouse model of permanent focal ischemia at one month post-injury. Our findings reveal cell- and region-specific changes within the stroke-injured and peri-infarct brain tissue. For instance, GABAergic and glutamatergic neurons exhibited upregulated genes in signaling pathways involved in axon guidance and synaptic plasticity, and downregulated pathways associated with aerobic metabolism. Using cell-cell communication analysis, we identified increased strength in predicted interactions within stroke tissue among both neural and non-neural cells via signaling pathways such as those involving collagen, protein tyrosine phosphatase receptor, neuronal growth regulator, laminin, and several cell adhesion molecules. Furthermore, we found a strong correlation between mouse transcriptome responses after stroke and those observed in human nonfatal brain stroke lesions. Common molecular features were linked to inflammatory responses, extracellular matrix organization, and angiogenesis. Our findings provide a detailed resource for advancing our molecular understanding of stroke pathology and for discovering therapeutic targets in the repair phase of stroke recovery.

Pyramidal and parvalbumin neurons modulate the process of electroacupuncture stimulation for stroke rehabilitation

Electroacupuncture (EA) stimulation has been shown to be beneficial in stroke rehabilitation; however, little is known about the neurological mechanism by which this peripheral stimulation approach treats for stroke. This study showed that both pyramidal and parvalbumin (PV) neuronal activity increased in the contralesional primary motor cortex forelimb motor area (M1FL) after ischemic stroke induced by focal unilateral occlusion in the M1FL. EA stimulation reduced pyramidal neuronal activity and increased PV neuronal activity. These results were obtained by a combination of fiber photometry recordings, in vivo and in vitro electrophysiological recordings, and immunofluorescence. Moreover, EA was found to regulate the expression/function of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDARs) altered by stroke pathology. In summary, our findings suggest that EA could restore disturbed neuronal activity through the regulation of the activity of pyramidal and PV neurons. Furthermore, NMDARs we shown to play an important role in EA-mediated improvements in sensorimotor ability during stroke rehabilitation.

Low intensity repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation modulates brain-wide functional connectivity to promote anti-correlated c-Fos expression

Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) induces action potentials to induce plastic changes in the brain with increasing evidence for the therapeutic importance of brain-wide functional network effects of rTMS; however, the influence of sub-action potential threshold (low-intensity; LI-) rTMS on neuronal activity is largely unknown. We investigated whether LI-rTMS modulates neuronal activity and functional connectivity and also specifically assessed modulation of parvalbumin interneuron activity. We conducted a brain-wide analysis of c-Fos, a marker for neuronal activity, in mice that received LI-rTMS to visual cortex. Mice received single or multiple sessions of excitatory 10 Hz LI-rTMS with custom rodent coils or were sham controls. We assessed changes to c-Fos positive cell densities and c-Fos/parvalbumin co-expression. Peak c-Fos expression corresponded with activity during rTMS. We also assessed functional connectivity changes using brain-wide c-Fos-based network analysis. LI-rTMS modulated c-Fos expression in cortical and subcortical regions. c-Fos density changes were most prevalent with acute stimulation, however chronic stimulation decreased parvalbumin interneuron activity, most prominently in the amygdala and striatum. LI-rTMS also increased anti-correlated functional connectivity, with the most prominent effects also in the amygdala and striatum following chronic stimulation. LI-rTMS induces changes in c-Fos expression that suggest modulation of neuronal activity and functional connectivity throughout the brain. Our results suggest that LI-rTMS promotes anticorrelated functional connectivity, possibly due to decreased parvalbumin interneuron activation induced by chronic stimulation. These changes may underpin therapeutic rTMS effects, therefore modulation of subcortical activity supports rTMS for treatment of disorders involving subcortical dysregulation.

A Scientific Approach to Conscious Experience, Introspection, and Unconscious Processing: Vision and Blindsight

Although subjective conscious experience and introspection have long been considered unscientific and banned from psychology, they are indispensable in scientific practice. These terms are used in scientific contexts today; however, their meaning remains vague, and earlier objections to the distinction between conscious experience and unconscious processing, remain valid. This also applies to the distinction between conscious visual perception and unconscious visual processing. Damage to the geniculo-striate pathway or the visual cortex results in a perimetrically blind visual hemifield contralateral to the damaged hemisphere. In some cases, cerebral blindness is not absolute. Patients may still be able to guess the presence, location, shape or direction of movement of a stimulus even though they report no conscious visual experience. This "unconscious" ability was termed "blindsight". The present paper demonstrates how the term conscious visual experience can be introduced in a logically precise and methodologically correct way and becomes amenable to scientific examination. The distinction between conscious experience and unconscious processing is demonstrated in the cases of conscious vision and blindsight. The literature on "blindsight" and its neurobiological basis is reviewed. It is shown that blindsight can be caused by residual functions of neural networks of the visual cortex that have survived cerebral damage, and may also be due to an extrastriate pathway via the midbrain to cortical areas such as areas V4 and MT/V5.

Crosstalk Between GABAergic Neurotransmission and Inflammatory Cascades in the Post-ischemic Brain: Relevance for Stroke Recovery

Adaptive plasticity processes are required involving neurons as well as non-neuronal cells to recover lost brain functions after an ischemic stroke. Recent studies show that gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) has profound effects on glial and immune cell functions in addition to its inhibitory actions on neuronal circuits in the post-ischemic brain. Here, we provide an overview of how GABAergic neurotransmission changes during the first weeks after stroke and how GABA affects functions of astroglial and microglial cells as well as peripheral immune cell populations accumulating in the ischemic territory and brain regions remote to the lesion. Moreover, we will summarize recent studies providing data on the immunomodulatory actions of GABA of relevance for stroke recovery. Interestingly, the activation of GABA receptors on immune cells exerts a downregulation of detrimental anti-inflammatory cascades. Conversely, we will discuss studies addressing how specific inflammatory cascades affect GABAergic neurotransmission on the level of GABA receptor composition, GABA synthesis, and release. In particular, the chemokines CXCR4 and CX3CR1 pathways have been demonstrated to modulate receptor composition and synthesis. Together, the actual view on the interactions between GABAergic neurotransmission and inflammatory cascades points towards a specific crosstalk in the post-ischemic brain. Similar to what has been shown in experimental models, specific therapeutic modulation of GABAergic neurotransmission and inflammatory pathways may synergistically promote neuronal plasticity to enhance stroke recovery.

Cell-to-Cell Interactions Mediating Functional Recovery after Stroke

Ischemic damage in brain tissue triggers a cascade of molecular and structural plastic changes, thus influencing a wide range of cell-to-cell interactions. Understanding and manipulating this scenario of intercellular connections is the Holy Grail for post-stroke neurorehabilitation. Here, we discuss the main findings in the literature related to post-stroke alterations in cell-to-cell interactions, which may be either detrimental or supportive for functional recovery. We consider both neural and non-neural cells, starting from astrocytes and reactive astrogliosis and moving to the roles of the oligodendrocytes in the support of vulnerable neurons and sprouting inhibition. We discuss the controversial role of microglia in neural inflammation after injury and we conclude with the description of post-stroke alterations in pyramidal and GABAergic cells interactions. For all of these sections, we review not only the spontaneous evolution in cellular interactions after ischemic injury, but also the experimental strategies which have targeted these interactions and that are inspiring novel therapeutic strategies for clinical application.

Mizagliflozin, a selective SGLT1 inhibitor, improves vascular cognitive impairment in a mouse model of small vessel disease

Previously, we showed that sodium/glucose cotransporter 1 (SGLT1) participates in vascular cognitive impairment in small vessel disease. We hypothesized that SGLT1 inhibitors can improve the small vessel disease induced-vascular cognitive impairment. We examined the effects of mizagliflozin, a selective SGLT1 inhibitor, and phlorizin, a non-selective SGLT inhibitor, on vascular cognitive impairment in a mouse model of small vessel disease. Small vessel disease was created using a mouse model of asymmetric common carotid artery surgery (ACAS). Two and/or 4 weeks after ACAS, all experiments were performed. Cerebral blood flow (CBF) was decreased in ACAS compared with sham-operated mice. Phlorizin but not mizagliflozin reversed the decreased CBF of ACAS mice. Both mizagliflozin and phlorizin reversed the ACAS-induced decrease in the latency to fall in a wire hang test of ACAS mice. Moreover, they reversed the ACAS-induced longer escape latencies in the Morris water maze test of ACAS mice. ACAS increased SGLT1 and proinflammatory cytokine gene expressions in mouse brains and phlorizin but not mizagliflozin normalized all gene expressions in ACAS mice. Hematoxylin/eosin staining demonstrated that they inhibited pyknotic cell death in the ACAS mouse hippocampus. In PC12HS cells, IL-1β increased SGLT1 expression and decreased survival rates of cells. Both mizagliflozin and phlorizin increased the survival rates of IL-1β-treated PC12HS cells. These results suggest that mizagliflozin and phlorizin can improve vascular cognitive impairment through the inhibition of neural SGLT1 and phlorizin also does so through the improvement of CBF in a mouse model of small vessel disease.

Parvalbumin-Positive Neuron Loss and Amyloid-β Deposits in the Frontal Cortex of Alzheimer's Disease-Related Mice

Alzheimer's disease (AD) has several hallmark features including amyloid-β (Aβ) plaque deposits and neuronal loss. Here, we characterized Aβ plaque aggregation and parvalbumin-positive (PV) GABAergic neurons in 6-9-month-old 5xFAD mice harboring mutations associated with familial AD. We used immunofluorescence staining to compare three regions in the frontal cortex-prelimbic (PrL), cingulate (Cg, including Cg1 and Cg2), and secondary motor (M2) cortices-along with primary somatosensory (S1) cortex. We quantified the density of Aβ plaques, which showed significant laminar and regional vulnerability. There were more plaques of larger sizes in deep layers compared to superficial layers. Total plaque burden was higher in frontal regions compared to S1. We also found layer- and region-specific differences across genotype in the density of PV interneurons. PV neuron density was lower in 5xFAD mice than wild-type, particularly in deep layers of frontal regions, with Cg (-50%) and M2 (-39%) exhibiting the largest reduction. Using in vivo two-photon imaging, we longitudinally visualized the loss of frontal cortical PV neurons across four weeks in the AD mouse model. Overall, these results provide information about Aβ deposits and PV neuron density in a widely used mouse model for AD, implicating deep layers of frontal cortical regions as being especially vulnerable.

Rapid Neuronal Ultrastructure Disruption and Recovery during Spreading Depolarization-Induced Cytotoxic Edema

Two major pathogenic events that cause acute brain damage during neurologic emergencies of stroke, head trauma, and cardiac arrest are spreading depolarizing waves and the associated brain edema that course across the cortex injuring brain cells. Virtually nothing is known about how spreading depolarization (SD)-induced cytotoxic edema evolves at the ultrastructural level immediately after insult and during recovery. In vivo 2-photon imaging followed by quantitative serial section electron microscopy was used to assess synaptic circuit integrity in the neocortex of urethane-anesthetized male and female mice during and after SD evoked by transient bilateral common carotid artery occlusion. SD triggered a rapid fragmentation of dendritic mitochondria. A large increase in the density of synapses on swollen dendritic shafts implies that some dendritic spines were overwhelmed by swelling or merely retracted. The overall synaptic density was unchanged. The postsynaptic dendritic membranes remained attached to axonal boutons, providing a structural basis for the recovery of synaptic circuits. Upon immediate reperfusion, cytotoxic edema mainly subsides as affirmed by a recovery of dendritic ultrastructure. Dendritic recuperation from swelling and reversibility of mitochondrial fragmentation suggests that neurointensive care to improve tissue perfusion should be paralleled by treatments targeting mitochondrial recovery and minimizing the occurrence of SDs.

SGLT1 participates in the development of vascular cognitive impairment in a mouse model of small vessel disease

Sodium/glucose cotransporter 1 (SGLT1) participates in ischemia-reperfusion-induced cerebral injury. However, whether SGLT1 participates in the development of small vessel disease induced-vascular cognitive impairment is unknown. We examined the roles of SGLT1 in the development of vascular cognitive impairment in a mouse model of small vessel disease. Small vessel disease was created by placement of an ameroid constrictor around the right common carotid artery (CCA) and placement of a microcoil around the left CCA (ACAS) in wild-type (WT) and SGLT1-knock out (KO) mice. Two and/or 4 weeks after ACAS, all experiments were performed. Hematoxylin/eosin staining demonstrated that the number of pyknotic cell deaths was greater in the ACAS WT than ACAS SGLT1-KO hippocampus. The latency to fall in a wire hang test was significantly shorter in ACAS than sham-operated WT mice, whereas it was similar between ACAS and sham-operated SGLT1-KO mice. The Morris water maze test revealed that ACAS WT mice exhibited longer escape latencies than ACAS SGLT1-KO mice. ACAS significantly increased SGLT1 gene expression in WT mouse brains. Gene expressions of MCP-1, IL-1β, TNF-α, and IL-6 were increased in ACAS WT compared with sham-operated WT mouse brains. Their increased gene expressions were significantly decreased in ACAS SGLT1-KO compared with ACAS WT mice. These results suggest that SGLT1 plays important roles in the development of small vessel dementia.

Oxygen-Glucose Deprivation Differentially Affects Neocortical Pyramidal Neurons and Parvalbumin-Positive Interneurons

Stroke is a devastating brain disorder. The pathophysiology of stroke is associated with an impaired excitation-inhibition balance in the area that surrounds the infarct core after the insult, the peri-infarct zone. Here we exposed slices from adult mouse prefrontal cortex to oxygen-glucose deprivation and reoxygenation (OGD-RO) to study ischemia-induced changes in the activity of excitatory pyramidal neurons and inhibitory parvalbumin (PV)-positive interneurons. We found that during current-clamp recordings, PV-positive interneurons were more vulnerable to OGD-RO than pyramidal neurons as indicated by the lower percentage of recovery of PV-positive interneurons. However, neither the amplitude of OGD-induced depolarization observed in current-clamp mode nor the OGD-associated current observed in voltage-clamp mode differed between the two cell types. Large amplitude, presumably action-potential dependent, spontaneous postsynaptic inhibitory currents recorded from pyramidal neurons were less frequent after OGD-RO than in control condition. Disynaptic inhibitory postsynaptic currents (dIPSCs) in pyramidal neurons produced predominantly by PV-positive interneurons were reduced by OGD-RO. Following OGD-RO, dendrites of PV-positive interneurons exhibited more pathological beading than those of pyramidal neurons. Our data support the hypothesis that the differential vulnerability to ischemia-like conditions of excitatory and inhibitory neurons leads to the altered excitation-inhibition balance associated with stroke pathophysiology.

Activation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase and p38 after cerebral ischemia upregulates cerebral sodium-glucose transporter type 1

Cerebral ischemic stress increases cerebral sodium-glucose transporter type 1 (SGLT-1). However, the mechanism by which cerebral ischemia leads to the up-regulation of SGLT-1 remains unclear. In peripheral tissue, the activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) increases SGLT-1. MAPK pathways [c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), p38 MAPK, and extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase (ERK)] are activated by cerebral ischemic stress. Therefore, we confirmed the involvement of MAPKs in the up-regulation of cerebral SGLT-1 after cerebral ischemia. Male ddY mice were subjected to middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO). Protein expression was assessed by western blotting. Mice received an intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) injection of SP600125 (JNK inhibitor), SB203580 (p38 inhibitor), and PD98059 (MEK inhibitor) immediately after reperfusion. The infarction and behavioral abnormalities were assessed on days 1 and 3 after MCAO. The MAPK inhibitors suppressed the activation of JNK, p38, and ERK 3 h after MCAO. SP600125 and SB203580 administration ameliorated cerebral ischemic neuronal damage, whereas PD98059 administration exacerbated cerebral ischemic neuronal damage. SP600125 and SB203580 significantly suppressed the increase in SGLT-1 12 h after MCAO. PD98059 had no effect on SGLT-1 expression after MCAO. Our results indicate that the activation of JNK and p38 participate in the up-regulation of cerebral SGLT-1 after MCAO.

Lateral Cerebellar Nucleus Stimulation has Selective Effects on Glutamatergic and GABAergic Perilesional Neurogenesis After Cortical Ischemia in the Rodent Model

BACKGROUND

Chronic deep brain stimulation of the rodent lateral cerebellar nucleus (LCN) has been demonstrated to enhance motor recovery following cortical ischemia. This effect is concurrent with synaptogenesis and expression of long-term potentiation markers in the perilesional cerebral cortex.

OBJECTIVE

To further investigate the cellular changes associated with chronic LCN stimulation in the ischemic rodent by examining neurogenesis along the cerebellothalamocortical pathway.

METHODS

Rats were trained on the pasta matrix task, followed by induction of cortical ischemia and electrode implantation in the contralesional LCN. Electrical stimulation was initiated 6 wk after stroke induction and continued for 4 wk prior to sacrifice. Neurogenesis was examined using immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

Treated animals showed enhanced performance on the pasta matrix task relative to sham controls. Increased cell proliferation colabeled with 5'-Bromo-2'-deoxyuridine and neurogenic markers (doublecortin) was observed in the perilesional cortex as well as bilateral mediodorsal and ventrolateral thalamic subnuclei in treated vs untreated animals. The neurogenic effect at the level of motor cortex was selective, with stimulation-treated animals showing greater glutamatergic neurogenesis but significantly less GABAergic neurogenesis.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest that LCN deep brain stimulation modulates postinjury neurogenesis, providing a possible mechanistic foundation for the associated enhancement in poststroke motor recovery.

The Perineuronal 'Safety' Net? Perineuronal Net Abnormalities in Neurological Disorders

Perineuronal nets (PNN) are extracellular matrix (ECM) assemblies that preferentially ensheath parvalbumin (PV) expressing interneurons. Converging evidence indicates that PV cells and PNN are impaired in a variety of neurological disorders. PNN development and maintenance is necessary for a number of processes within the CNS, including regulation of GABAergic cell function, protection of neurons from oxidative stress, and closure of developmental critical period plasticity windows. Understanding PNN functions may be essential for characterizing the mechanisms of altered cortical excitability observed in neurodegenerative and neurodevelopmental disorders. Indeed, PNN abnormalities have been observed in post-mortem brain tissues of patients with schizophrenia and Alzheimer’s disease. There is impaired development of PNNs and enhanced activity of its key regulator matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) in Fragile X Syndrome, a common genetic cause of autism. MMP-9, a protease that cleaves ECM, is differentially regulated in a number of these disorders. Despite this, few studies have addressed the interactions between PNN expression, MMP-9 activity and neuronal excitability. In this review, we highlight the current evidence for PNN abnormalities in CNS disorders associated with altered network function and MMP-9 levels, emphasizing the need for future work targeting PNNs in pathophysiology and therapeutic treatment of neurological disorders.

Cognitive Deficits after Cerebral Ischemia and Underlying Dysfunctional Plasticity: Potential Targets for Recovery of Cognition

Cerebral ischemia affects millions of people worldwide and survivors suffer from long-term functional and cognitive deficits. While stroke and cardiac arrest are typically considered when discussing ischemic brain injuries, there is much evidence that smaller ischemic insults underlie neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease. The "regenerative" capacity of the brain relies on several aspects of plasticity that are crucial for normal functioning; less affected brain areas may take over function previously performed by irreversibly damaged tissue. To harness the endogenous plasticity mechanisms of the brain to provide recovery of cognitive function, we must first understand how these mechanisms are altered after damage, such as cerebral ischemia. In this review, we discuss the long-term cognitive changes that result after cerebral ischemia and how ischemia alters several plasticity processes. We conclude with a discussion of how current and prospective therapies may restore brain plasticity and allow for recovery of cognitive function, which may be applicable to several disorders that have a disruption of cognitive processing, including traumatic brain injury and Alzheimer's disease.

Sodium-glucose transporter as a novel therapeutic target in disease

Glucose is the primary energy fuel of life. A glucose transporter, the sodium-glucose transporter (SGLT), is receiving attention as a novel therapeutic target in disease. This review summarizes the physiological role of SGLT in cerebral ischemia, cancer, cardiac disease, and intestinal ischemia, which has encouraged analysis of SGLT function. In cerebral ischemia and cardiomyopathy, SGLT-1 is involved in worsening of the injury. In addition, SGLT-1 promotes the development of cancer. On the other hand, SGLT-1 has a protective effect against cardiac and intestinal ischemia. Interestingly, SGLT-1 expression levels are increased in some diseased tissue, such as in cerebral ischemia and cancer. This suggests that SGLT-1 may have an important role in many diseases. This review discusses the potential of SGLT as a target for novel therapeutic agents.

Functions and dysfunctions of neocortical inhibitory neuron subtypes

Neocortical inhibitory neurons exhibit remarkably diverse morphology, physiological properties and connectivity. Genetic access to molecularly defined subtypes of inhibitory neurons has aided their functional characterization in recent years. These studies have established that, instead of simply balancing excitatory neuron activity, inhibitory neurons actively shape excitatory circuits in a subtype-specific manner. We review the emerging view that inhibitory neuron subtypes perform context-dependent modulation of excitatory activity, as well as regulate experience-dependent plasticity of excitatory circuits. We then review the roles of neuromodulators in regulating the subtype-specific functions of inhibitory neurons. Finally, we discuss the idea that dysfunctions of inhibitory neuron subtypes may be responsible for various aspects of neurological disorders.

Intravenous infusion of human bone marrow mesenchymal stromal cells promotes functional recovery and neuroplasticity after ischemic stroke in mice

Transplantation of human bone marrow mesenchymal stromal cells (hBM-MSC) promotes functional recovery after stroke in animal models, but the mechanisms underlying these effects remain incompletely understood. We tested the efficacy of Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) compliant hBM-MSC, injected intravenously 3.5 hours after injury in mice subjected to transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (tMCAo). We addressed whether hBM-MSC are efficacious and if this efficacy is associated with cortical circuit reorganization using neuroanatomical analysis of GABAergic neurons (parvalbumin; PV-positive cells) and perineuronal nets (PNN), a specialized extracellular matrix structure which acts as an inhibitor of neural plasticity. tMCAo mice receiving hBM-MSC, showed early and lasting improvement of sensorimotor and cognitive functions compared to control tMCAo mice. Furthermore, 5 weeks post-tMCAo, hBM-MSC induced a significant rescue of ipsilateral cortical neurons; an increased proportion of PV-positive neurons in the perilesional cortex, suggesting GABAergic interneurons preservation; and a lower percentage of PV-positive cells surrounded by PNN, indicating an enhanced plastic potential of the perilesional cortex. These results show that hBM-MSC improve functional recovery and stimulate neuroprotection after stroke. Moreover, the downregulation of “plasticity brakes” such as PNN suggests that hBM-MSC treatment stimulates plasticity and formation of new connections in the perilesional cortex.

Resolution of High-Frequency Mesoscale Intracortical Maps Using the Genetically Encoded Glutamate Sensor iGluSnFR

Wide-field-of-view mesoscopic cortical imaging with genetically encoded sensors enables decoding of regional activity and connectivity in anesthetized and behaving mice; however, the kinetics of most genetically encoded sensors can be suboptimal for in vivo characterization of frequency bands higher than 1-3 Hz. Furthermore, existing sensors, in particular those that measure calcium (genetically encoded calcium indicators; GECIs), largely monitor suprathreshold activity. Using a genetically encoded sensor of extracellular glutamate and in vivo mesoscopic imaging, we demonstrate rapid kinetics of virally transduced or transgenically expressed glutamate-sensing fluorescent reporter iGluSnFR. In both awake and anesthetized mice, we imaged an 8 × 8 mm field of view through an intact transparent skull preparation. iGluSnFR revealed cortical representation of sensory stimuli with rapid kinetics that were also reflected in correlation maps of spontaneous cortical activities at frequencies up to the alpha band (8-12 Hz). iGluSnFR resolved temporal features of sensory processing such as an intracortical reverberation during the processing of visual stimuli. The kinetics of iGluSnFR for reporting regional cortical signals were more rapid than those for Emx-GCaMP3 and GCaMP6s and comparable to the temporal responses seen with RH1692 voltage sensitive dye (VSD), with similar signal amplitude. Regional cortical connectivity detected by iGluSnFR in spontaneous brain activity identified functional circuits consistent with maps generated from GCaMP3 mice, GCaMP6s mice, or VSD sensors. Viral and transgenic iGluSnFR tools have potential utility in normal physiology, as well as neurologic and psychiatric pathologies in which abnormalities in glutamatergic signaling are implicated.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT

We have characterized the usage of virally transduced or transgenically expressed extracellular glutamate sensor iGluSnFR to perform wide-field-of-view mesoscopic imaging of cortex in both anesthetized and awake mice. Probes for neurotransmitter concentration enable monitoring of brain activity and provide a more direct measure of regional functional activity that is less dependent on nonlinearities associated with voltage-gated ion channels. We demonstrate functional maps of extracellular glutamate concentration and that this sensor has rapid kinetics that enable reporting high-frequency signaling. This imaging strategy has utility in normal physiology and pathologies in which altered glutamatergic signaling is observed. Moreover, we provide comparisons between iGluSnFR and genetically encoded calcium indicators and voltage-sensitive dyes.

Sodium transport through the cerebral sodium-glucose transporter exacerbates neuron damage during cerebral ischaemia

OBJECTIVES

We recently demonstrated that the cerebral sodium-glucose transporter (SGLT) is involved in postischaemic hyperglycaemia-induced exacerbation of cerebral ischaemia. However, the associated SGLT-mediated mechanisms remain unclear. Thus, we examined the involvement of cerebral SGLT-induced excessive sodium ion influx in the development of cerebral ischaemic neuronal damage.

METHODS

[Na+]i was estimated according to sodium-binding benzofuran isophthalate fluorescence. In the in vitro study, primary cortical neurons were prepared from fetuses of ddY mice. Primary cortical neurons were cultured for 5 days before each treatment with reagents, and these survival rates were assessed using biochemical assays. In in vivo study, a mouse model of focal ischaemia was generated using middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO).

KEY FINDINGS

In these experiments, treatment with high concentrations of glucose induced increment in [Na+]i, and this phenomenon was suppressed by the SGLT-specific inhibitor phlorizin. SGLT-specific sodium ion influx was induced using a-methyl-D-glucopyranoside (a-MG) treatments, which led to significant concentration-dependent declines in neuronal survival rates and exacerbated hydrogen peroxide-induced neuronal cell death. Moreover, phlorizin ameliorated these effects. Finally, intracerebroventricular administration of a-MG exacerbated the development of neuronal damage induced by MCAO, and these effects were ameliorated by the administration of phlorizin.

CONCLUSIONS

Hence, excessive influx of sodium ions into neuronal cells through cerebral SGLT may exacerbate the development of cerebral ischaemic neuronal damage.

Optogenetic Approaches to Target Specific Neural Circuits in Post-stroke Recovery

Stroke is a leading cause of death and disability in the USA, yet treatment options are very limited. Functional recovery can occur after stroke and is attributed, in part, to rewiring of neural connections in areas adjacent to or remotely connected to the infarct. A better understanding of neural circuit rewiring is thus an important step toward developing future therapeutic strategies for stroke recovery. Because stroke disrupts functional connections in peri-infarct and remotely connected regions, it is important to investigate brain-wide network dynamics during post-stroke recovery. Optogenetics is a revolutionary neuroscience tool that uses bioengineered light-sensitive proteins to selectively activate or inhibit specific cell types and neural circuits within milliseconds, allowing greater specificity and temporal precision for dissecting neural circuit mechanisms in diseases. In this review, we discuss the current view of post-stroke remapping and recovery, including recent studies that use optogenetics to investigate neural circuit remapping after stroke, as well as optogenetic stimulation to enhance stroke recovery. Multimodal approaches employing optogenetics in conjunction with other readouts (e.g., in vivo neuroimaging techniques, behavior assays, and next-generation sequencing) will advance our understanding of neural circuit reorganization during post-stroke recovery, as well as provide important insights into which brain circuits to target when designing brain stimulation strategies for future clinical studies.

Prophylactic Subacute Administration of Zinc Increases CCL2, CCR2, FGF2, and IGF-1 Expression and Prevents the Long-Term Memory Loss in a Rat Model of Cerebral Hypoxia-Ischemia

Prophylactic subacute administration of zinc decreases lipoperoxidation and cell death following a transient cerebral hypoxia-ischemia, thus suggesting neuroprotective and preconditioning effects. Chemokines and growth factors are also involved in the neuroprotective effect in hypoxia-ischemia. We explored whether zinc prevents the cerebral cortex-hippocampus injury through regulation of CCL2, CCR2, FGF2, and IGF-1 expression following a 10 min of common carotid artery occlusion (CCAO). Male rats were grouped as follows: (1) Zn96h, rats injected with ZnCl2 (one dose every 24 h during four days); (2) Zn96h + CCAO, rats treated with ZnCl2 before CCAO; (3) CCAO, rats with CCAO only; (4) Sham group, rats with mock CCAO; and (5) untreated rats. The cerebral cortex-hippocampus was dissected at different times before and after CCAO. CCL2/CCR2, FGF2, and IGF-1 expression was assessed by RT-PCR and ELISA. Learning in Morris Water Maze was achieved by daily training during 5 days. Long-term memory was evaluated on day 7 after learning. Subacute administration of zinc increased expression of CCL2, CCR2, FGF2, and IGF-1 in the early and late phases of postreperfusion and prevented the CCAO-induced memory loss in the rat. These results might be explained by the induction of neural plasticity because of the expression of CCL2 and growth factors.

The interneuron energy hypothesis: Implications for brain disease

Fast-spiking, inhibitory interneurons - prototype is the parvalbumin-positive (PV+) basket cell - generate action potentials at high frequency and synchronize the activity of numerous excitatory principal neurons, such as pyramidal cells, during fast network oscillations by rhythmic inhibition. For this purpose, fast-spiking, PV+ interneurons have unique electrophysiological characteristics regarding action potential kinetics and ion conductances, which are associated with high energy expenditure. This is reflected in the neural ultrastructure by enrichment with mitochondria and cytochrome c oxidase, indicating the dependence on oxidative phosphorylation for adenosine-5'-triphosphate (ATP) generation. The high energy expenditure is most likely required for membrane ion transport in dendrites and the extensive axon arbor as well as for presynaptic release of neurotransmitter, gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). Fast-spiking, PV+ interneurons are central for the emergence of gamma oscillations (30-100Hz) that provide a fundamental mechanism of complex information processing during sensory perception, motor behavior and memory formation in networks of the hippocampus and the neocortex. Conversely, shortage in glucose and oxygen supply (metabolic stress) and/or excessive formation of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (oxidative stress) may render these interneurons to be a vulnerable target. Dysfunction in fast-spiking, PV+ interneurons might set a low threshold for impairment of fast network oscillations and thus higher brain functions. This pathophysiological mechanism might be highly relevant for cerebral aging as well as various acute and chronic brain diseases, such as stroke, vascular cognitive impairment, epilepsy, Alzheimer's disease and schizophrenia.

Mesoscale infraslow spontaneous membrane potential fluctuations recapitulate high-frequency activity cortical motifs

Neuroimaging of spontaneous, resting-state infraslow (<0.1 Hz) brain activity has been used to reveal the regional functional organization of the brain and may lead to the identification of novel biomarkers of neurological disease. However, these imaging studies generally rely on indirect measures of neuronal activity and the nature of the neuronal activity correlate remains unclear. Here we show, using wide-field, voltage-sensitive dye imaging, the mesoscale spatiotemporal structure and pharmacological dependence of spontaneous, infraslow cortical activity in anaesthetized and awake mice. Spontaneous infraslow activity is regionally distinct, correlates with electroencephalography and local field potential recordings, and shows bilateral symmetry between cortical hemispheres. Infraslow activity is attenuated and its functional structure abolished after treatment with voltage-gated sodium channel and glutamate receptor antagonists. Correlation analysis reveals patterns of infraslow regional connectivity that are analogous to cortical motifs observed from higher-frequency spontaneous activity and reflect the underlying framework of intracortical axonal projections.