Formation and function of synapses with respect to Schwann cells at the end of motor nerve terminal branches on mature amphibian (Bufo marinus) muscle

T-box transcription factor 21 is expressed in terminal Schwann cells at the neuromuscular junction

INTRODUCTION/AIMS

Terminal Schwann cells (tSCs) are nonmyelinating Schwann cells present at the neuromuscular junction (NMJ) with multiple integral roles throughout their lifespan. There is no known gene differentiating tSCs from myelinating Schwann cells, making their isolation and investigation challenging. In this work we investigated genes expressed within tSCs.

METHODS

A novel dissection technique was utilized to isolate the tSC-containing NMJ band from the sternomastoid muscles of S100-GFP mice. RNA was isolated from samples containing: (a) NMJ bands (tSCs with nerve and muscle), (b) nerve, and (c) muscle, and microarray genetic expression analysis was conducted. Data were validated by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) and immunofluorescent staining. To identify genes specific to tSCs compared with other NMJ components, analysis of variance and rank-order analysis were performed using the Partek Genomic Suite.

RESULTS

Microarray analysis of the tSC-enriched NMJ band revealed upregulation (by 4- to 12-fold) of several genes unique to the NMJ compared with muscle or nerve parts alone (P < .05). Among these genes, Tbx21 (or T-bet) was identified, which showed a 12-fold higher expression at the NMJ compared with sciatic nerve (P < .002). qRT-PCR analysis showed Tbx21 mRNA expression was over ninefold higher (P < .05) in the NMJ relative to muscle and nerve. Tbx21 protein colocalized with tSCs and was not noted in myelinating SCs from sciatic nerve.

DISCUSSION

We found TBX21 to be expressed in tSCs. Additional studies will be performed to determine the functional significance of TBX21 in tSCs. These studies may enhance the investigative tools available to modulate tSCs to improve motor recovery after nerve injury.

Seasonal comparison of the neuromuscular junction morphology of Bufo marinus

At mammalian neuromuscular junctions (NMJs), prolonged inactivity leads to muscle denervation and atrophy. By contrast, amphibian NMJs do not show such degeneration even though they can remain in a state of drought-imposed dormancy (hibernation) for many years. We have previously reported that during the dry season, toad (Bufo marinus) NMJs display decreased sensitivity to extracellular calcium-dependent neurotransmitter release, which leads to minimal neuromuscular transmission. In the present study, we examined and compared NMJ morphology of toads obtained from the wild during the wet season (February-March) when these toads are active, to toads obtained from dry season (October-November) when toads are inactive. Iliofibularis muscles were isolated and prepared for immunostaining with anti-SV2, a monoclonal antibody that labels synaptic vesicle glycoprotein SV2. The corresponding postsynaptic acetylcholine receptors were stained using Alexa Fluro-555 conjugated α-bungarotoxin. Confocal microscopy and three-dimensional reconstructions were then used to examine the pre-and postsynaptic morphology of toads NMJs from the dry (inactive) and wet (active) seasons. Total axon branch number, the percentage of axon branches with discontinuous distributions of synaptic vesicles, and further the Pearson value of colocalization of pre and postsynaptic elements in each NMJs from both the dry and wet season were compared. While our previous studies on dry toads revealed a significant reduction in evoked neurotransmission, our present findings show that the structure of the NMJs suffered limited level of remodeling, suggesting a mechanism utilized by NMJs in dry season toads to support quick recover from their dormant state after the heavy rain in wet season.

Clinical relevance of terminal Schwann cells: An overlooked component of the neuromuscular junction

The terminal Schwann cell (tSC), a type of nonmyelinating Schwann cell, is a significant yet relatively understudied component of the neuromuscular junction. In addition to reviewing the role tSCs play on formation, maintenance, and remodeling of the synapse, we review studies that implicate tSCs in neuromuscular diseases including spinal muscular atrophy, Miller-Fisher syndrome, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, among others. We also discuss the importance of these cells on degeneration and regeneration after nerve injury. Knowledge of tSC biology may improve our understanding of disease pathogenesis and help us identify new and innovative therapeutic strategies for the many patients who suffer from neuromuscular disorders and nerve injuries.

Direct injection of indicators for calcium imaging at the Drosophila larval neuromuscular junction

Calcium imaging is a technique in which Ca(2+)-binding molecules are loaded into live cells and as they bind Ca(2+) they "indicate" the concentration of free calcium through a change in either the intensity or the wavelength of light emitted (fluorescence or bioluminescence). There are several possible methods for loading synthetic Ca(2+) indicators into subcellular compartments, including topical application of membrane-permeant Ca(2+) indicators, forward-filling of dextran conjugates, and direct injection. Calcium imaging is a highly informative technique in neurobiology because Ca(2+) is involved in many neuronal signaling pathways and serves as the trigger for neurotransmitter release. This article describes the direct injection of Ca(2+) indicators at the Drosophila larval neuromuscular junction (NMJ). This technique allows rapid loading of most Ca(2+) indicators, but there are drawbacks in that it is a difficult technique to master and requires additional electrophysiological equipment. Also, Ca(2+) indicators that are easily injected are usually susceptible to compartmentalization.

Glial imaging during synapse remodeling at the neuromuscular junction

Glia are an indispensable structural and functional component of the synapse. They modulate synaptic transmission and also play important roles in synapse formation and maintenance. The vertebrate neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is a classic model synapse. Due to its large size, simplicity and accessibility, the NMJ has contributed greatly to our understanding of synapse development and organization. In the past decade, the NMJ has also emerged as an effective model for studying glia-synapse interactions, in part due to the development of various labeling techniques that permit NMJs and associated Schwann cells (the glia at NMJs) to be visualized in vitro and in vivo. These approaches have demonstrated that Schwann cells are actively involved in synapse remodeling both during early development and in post-injury reinnervation. In vivo imaging has also recently been combined with serial section transmission electron microscopic (ssTEM) reconstruction to directly examine the ultrastructural organization of remodeling NMJs. In this review, we focus on the anatomical studies of Schwann cell dynamics and their roles in formation, maturation and remodeling of vertebrate NMJs using the highest temporal and spatial resolution methods currently available.

Mechanisms of calcium sequestration during facilitation at active zones of an amphibian neuromuscular junction

The calcium transients (Delta[Ca(2+)](i)) at active zones of amphibian (Bufo marinus) motor-nerve terminals that accompany impulses, visualized using a low-affinity calcium indicator injected into the terminal, are described and the pathways of subsequent sequestration of the residual calcium determined, allowing development of a quantitative model of the sequestering processes. Blocking the endoplasmic reticulum calcium pump with thapsigargin did not affect Delta[Ca(2+)](i) for a single impulse but increased its amplitude during short trains. Blocking the uptake of calcium by mitochondria with CCCP had little effect on Delta[Ca(2+)](i) of a single impulse but greatly increased its amplitude during short trains. This present compartmental model is compatible with our previous Monte Carlo diffusion model of Ca(2+) sequestration during facilitation [Bennett, M.R., Farnell, L., Gibson, W.G., 2004. The facilitated probability of quantal secretion within an array of calcium channels of an active zone at the amphibian neuromuscular junction. Biophys. J. 86(5), 2674-2690], with the single plasmalemma pump in that model now replaced by separate pumps for the plasmalemma and endoplasmic reticulum, as well as the introduction of a mitochondrial uniporter.

Purinergic junctional transmission and propagation of calcium waves in spinal cord astrocyte networks

Micro-photolithographic methods have been employed to form discrete patterns of spinal cord astrocytes that allow quantitative measurements of Ca(2+) wave propagation. Astrocytes were confined to lanes 20-100 microm wide and Ca(2+) waves propagated from a point of mechanical stimulation or of application of adenosine triphosphate; all Ca(2+) wave propagation was blocked by simultaneous application of purinergic P2Y(1) and P2Y(2) antagonists. Stimulation of an astrocyte at one end of a lane, followed by further stimulation of this astrocyte, gave rise to Ca(2+) transients in the same astrocytes; however, if the second stimulation was applied to an astrocyte at the other end of the lane, then this gave rise to a different but overlapping set of astrocytes generating a Ca(2+) signal. Both the amplitude and velocity of the Ca(2+) wave decreased over 270 microm from the point of initiation, and thereafter remained, on average, constant with random variations for at least a further 350 microm. Also, the percentage of astrocytes that gave a Ca(2+) transient decreased with distance along lanes. All the above observations were quantitatively predicted by our recent theoretical model of purinergic junctional transmission, as was the Ca(2+) wave propagation along and between parallel lanes of astrocytes different distances apart. These observations show that a model in which the main determinants are the diffusion of adenosine triphosphates regeneratively released from a stimulated astrocyte, together with differences in the properties and density of the purinergic P2Y receptors on astrocytes, is adequate to predict a wide range of Ca(2+) wave transmission and propagation phenomena.

Synapse-glia interactions at the vertebrate neuromuscular junction

Glial cells are widely distributed throughout the nervous system, including at the chemical synapse. However, our knowledge of the role of glial cells at the synapse is rudimentary. Recent studies using a model synapse, the vertebrate neuromuscular junction (NMJ), have demonstrated that perisynaptic Schwann cells (PSCs), which are the glia juxtaposed to the nerve terminal at the NMJ, play active and essential roles in synaptic function, maintenance, and development. PSCs can respond to nerve activity by increasing intracellular calcium and are capable of modulating synaptic function in response to pharmacological manipulations. Studies using PSC ablation in vivo have shown that PSCs are essential for the long-term maintenance of synaptic structure and function at the adult NMJ. In vivo observations have also shown that PSCs guide presynaptic nerve terminal extension and dictate the pattern of innervation during synaptic regeneration and remodeling at adult NMJs. PSCs may also induce postsynaptic acetylcholine receptor aggregation. Furthermore, PSCs play an essential role in synaptic growth and maintenance during development of NMJs in vivo, and Schwann cell-derived factors can promote synaptogenesis and enhance synaptic transmission in tissue culture. These recent findings advance the emerging concept that glial cells help make bigger, stronger, and more stable synapses.

Increased quantal size in transmission at slow but not fast neuromuscular synapses of apolipoprotein E deficient mice

Uncertainties from the literature concerning the role of apolipoprotein E (apoE) in central cholinergic function prompted us to investigate what effect apoE may have on transmission at the neuromuscular junction. Both spontaneous and evoked release were measured in isolated extensor digitorum longus (edl) and soleus muscles from both wild-type and apoE-deficient mice. Miniature endplate and nerve-evoked endplate potentials (MEPPs and EPPs, respectively) were indistinguishable in edl muscles in both groups of mice; however, MEPP amplitudes in soleus muscles were significantly larger (by an average of 23%) in apoE-deficient mice compared with 5- to 7-week-old age-matched wild-type mice. The EPP amplitudes were also larger in soleus muscles in the mutant mice, but this was a reflection of the larger quantal size in this muscle because quantal content, determined from the ratio of the average EPP amplitude to average MEPP amplitude, was unchanged from normal in the mutant mice. The MEPP frequency and the percent of nerve stimulations failing to produce an EPP were unchanged from normal in both muscle types in the mutant mice. The difference in quantal size in soleus muscle transmission between mutant and wild-type mice was abolished in the presence of neostigmine, an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor. The results suggest that apoE normally associates with acetylcholinesterase in the synaptic cleft of slow muscles, modulating the activity of the enzyme and therefore quantal size.

Glial cells maintain synaptic structure and function and promote development of the neuromuscular junction in vivo

To investigate the in vivo role of glial cells in synaptic function, maintenance, and development, we have developed an approach to selectively ablate perisynaptic Schwann cells (PSCs), the glial cells at the neuromuscular junction (NMJ), en masse from live frog muscles. In adults, following acute PSC ablation, synaptic structure and function were not altered. However, 1 week after PSC ablation, presynaptic function decreased by approximately half, while postsynaptic function was unchanged. Retraction of nerve terminals increased over 10-fold at PSC-ablated NMJs. Furthermore, nerve-evoked muscle twitch tension was reduced. In tadpoles, repeated in vivo observations revealed that PSC processes lead nerve terminal growth. In the absence of PSCs, growth and addition of synapses was dramatically reduced, and existing synapses underwent widespread retraction. Our findings provide in vivo evidence that glial cells maintain presynaptic structure and function at adult synapses and are vital for the growth and stability of developing synapses.

New roles for astrocytes: regulation of CNS synaptogenesis

The notion that astrocytes have a profound influence on the function of synapses between CNS neurons implies that the development of synaptic connections and their glial neighbors are controlled by reciprocally acting signals. Currently, however, synaptogenesis is considered a purely neuronal affair. This article summarizes recent experimental evidence suggesting that this may not be the case. Astrocytes may indeed regulate the formation, maturation and maintenance of synapses. The recent advances caution that synapses cannot develop correctly without astrocytes. Further progress on this issue requires new experimental models to identify signaling pathways and to scrutinize the relevance of glia-synapse interactions in vivo.

Perisynaptic Schwann cells at the neuromuscular junction: nerve- and activity-dependent contributions to synaptic efficacy, plasticity, and reinnervation

Glial cells are increasingly recognized for their important contributions to CNS and PNS synaptic function. Perisynaptic Schwann cells, which are glial cells at the neuromuscular junction, have proven to be an exceptionally useful model for studying these roles. Recent studies have shown that they detect and reciprocally modulate synaptic efficacy in an activity-dependent manner in the short term. In addition, perisynaptic Schwann cells guide reinnervating nerve sprouts after deinnervation, and many important parameters of this are dependent on synapse activity. Thus, it is hypothesized that perisynaptic Schwann cells are key integrators in a continuum of synaptic efficacy, stability, and plasticity at the neuromuscular junction, which is important for maintaining and restoring synaptic efficacy.

Role of glia in synapse development

Recent studies suggest that glial cells regulate certain aspects of synapse development. Neurons can form synapses without glia, but may require glia-derived cholesterol to form numerous and efficient synapses. During synapse maturation, soluble and contact-dependent factors from glia may influence the composition of the postsynaptic density. Finally, synaptic connections appear to require glia to support their structural stability. Given the new evidence, it may be time now to acknowledge glia as a source for synaptogenesis-promoting signals. Scrutinizing the molecular mechanisms underlying this new function of glia and testing its relevance in vivo may help to understand how synapses develop and why they degenerate under pathological conditions.