Coactivation of motoneurons regulated by a network combining electrical and chemical synapses

Motor Rhythm Dissection From the Backward Circuit in C. elegans

Motor rhythm is initiated and sustained by oscillatory neuronal activity. We recently discovered that the A-class excitatory motor neurons (MNs) (A-MNs) function as intrinsic oscillators. They drive backward locomotion by generating rhythmic postsynaptic currents (rPSCs) in body wall muscles. Molecular underpinning of the rPSCs, however, is not fully elucidated. We report here that there are three types of the rPSC patterns, namely the phasic, tonic, and long-lasting, each with distinct kinetics and channel-dependence. The Na⁺ leak channel is required for all rPSC patterns. The tonic rPSCs exhibit strong dependence on the high-voltage-gated Ca²⁺ channels. Three K⁺ channels, the BK-type Ca²⁺-activated K⁺ channel, Na⁺-activated K⁺ channel, and voltage-gated K⁺ channel (Kv4), primarily inhibit tonic and long-lasting rPSCs with varying degrees and preferences. The elaborate regulation of rPSCs by different channels, through increasing or decreasing the rPSCs frequency and/or charge, correlates with the changes in the reversal velocity for respective channel mutants. The molecular dissection of different A-MNs-rPSC components therefore reveals different mechanisms for multiplex motor rhythm.

A tale of two leeches: Toward the understanding of the evolution and development of behavioral neural circuits

In the animal kingdom, behavioral traits encompass a broad spectrum of biological phenotypes that have critical roles in adaptive evolution, but an EvoDevo approach has not been broadly used to study behavior evolution. Here, we propose that, by integrating two leech model systems, each of which has already attained some success in its respective field, it is possible to take on behavioral traits with an EvoDevo approach. We first identify the developmental changes that may theoretically lead to behavioral evolution and explain why an EvoDevo study of behavior is challenging. Next, we discuss the pros and cons of the two leech model species, Hirudo, a classic model for invertebrate neurobiology, and Helobdella, an emerging model for clitellate developmental biology, as models for behavioral EvoDevo research. Given the limitations of each leech system, neither is particularly strong for behavioral EvoDevo. However, the two leech systems are complementary in their technical accessibilities, and they do exhibit some behavioral similarities and differences. By studying them in parallel and together with additional leech species such as Haementeria, it is possible to explore the different levels of behavioral development and evolution.

Molecular basis of junctional current rectification at an electrical synapse

Rectifying electrical synapses (RESs) exist across animal species, but their rectification mechanism is largely unknown. We investigated why RESs between AVA premotor interneurons and A-type cholinergic motoneurons (A-MNs) in Caenorhabditis elegans escape circuit conduct junctional currents (I j) only in the antidromic direction. These RESs consist of UNC-7 innexin in AVA and UNC-9 innexin in A-MNs. UNC-7 has multiple isoforms differing in the length and sequence of the amino terminus. In a heterologous expression system, only one UNC-7 isoform, UNC-7b, can form heterotypic gap junctions (GJs) with UNC-9 that strongly favor I j in the UNC-9 to UNC-7 direction. Knockout of unc-7b alone almost eliminated the I j, whereas AVA-specific expression of UNC-7b substantially rescued the coupling defect of unc-7 mutant. Neutralizing charged residues in UNC-7b amino terminus abolished the rectification property of UNC-7b/UNC-9 GJs. Our results suggest that the rectification property results from electrostatic interactions between charged residues in UNC-7b amino terminus.

Caenorhabditis elegans excitatory ventral cord motor neurons derive rhythm for body undulation

The intrinsic oscillatory activity of central pattern generators underlies motor rhythm. We review and discuss recent findings that address the origin of Caenorhabditis elegans motor rhythm. These studies propose that the A- and mid-body B-class excitatory motor neurons at the ventral cord function as non-bursting intrinsic oscillators to underlie body undulation during reversal and forward movements, respectively. Proprioception entrains their intrinsic activities, allows phase-coupling between members of the same class motor neurons, and thereby facilitates directional propagation of undulations. Distinct pools of premotor interneurons project along the ventral nerve cord to innervate all members of the A- and B-class motor neurons, modulating their oscillations, as well as promoting their bi-directional coupling. The two motor sub-circuits, which consist of oscillators and descending inputs with distinct properties, form the structural base of dynamic rhythmicity and flexible partition of the forward and backward motor states. These results contribute to a continuous effort to establish a mechanistic and dynamic model of the C. elegans sensorimotor system. C. elegans exhibits rich sensorimotor functions despite a small neuron number. These findings implicate a circuit-level functional compression. By integrating the role of rhythm generation and proprioception into motor neurons, and the role of descending regulation of oscillators into premotor interneurons, this numerically simple nervous system can achieve a circuit infrastructure analogous to that of anatomically complex systems. C. elegans has manifested itself as a compact model to search for general principles of sensorimotor behaviours.This article is part of a discussion meeting issue 'Connectome to behaviour: modelling C. elegans at cellular resolution'.

Excitatory motor neurons are local oscillators for backward locomotion

Cell- or network-driven oscillators underlie motor rhythmicity. The identity of C. elegans oscillators remains unknown. Through cell ablation, electrophysiology, and calcium imaging, we show: (1) forward and backward locomotion is driven by different oscillators; (2) the cholinergic and excitatory A-class motor neurons exhibit intrinsic and oscillatory activity that is sufficient to drive backward locomotion in the absence of premotor interneurons; (3) the UNC-2 P/Q/N high-voltage-activated calcium current underlies A motor neuron's oscillation; (4) descending premotor interneurons AVA, via an evolutionarily conserved, mixed gap junction and chemical synapse configuration, exert state-dependent inhibition and potentiation of A motor neuron's intrinsic activity to regulate backward locomotion. Thus, motor neurons themselves derive rhythms, which are dually regulated by the descending interneurons to control the reversal motor state. These and previous findings exemplify compression: essential circuit properties are conserved but executed by fewer numbers and layers of neurons in a small locomotor network.

Functional contributions of electrical synapses in sensory and motor networks

Intercellular interactions in the nervous system are mediated by two types of dedicated structural arrangements: electrical and chemical synapses. Several characteristics distinguish these two mechanisms of communication, such as speed, reliability and the fact that electrical synapses are, potentially, bidirectional. Given these properties, electrical synapses can subserve, in addition to synchrony, three main interrelated network functions: signal amplification, noise reduction and/or coincidence detection. Specific network motifs in sensory and motor systems of invertebrates and vertebrates illustrate how signal transmission through electrical junctions contributes to a complex processing of information.

Graded boosting of synaptic signals by low-threshold voltage-activated calcium conductance

Low-threshold voltage-activated calcium conductances (LT-VACCs) play a substantial role in shaping the electrophysiological attributes of neurites. We have investigated how these conductances affect synaptic integration in a premotor nonspiking (NS) neuron of the leech nervous system. These cells exhibit an extensive neuritic tree, do not fire Na(+)-dependent spikes, but express an LT-VACC that was sensitive to 250 μM Ni(2+) and 100 μM NNC 55-0396 (NNC). NS neurons responded to excitation of mechanosensory pressure neurons with depolarizing responses for which amplitude was a linear function of the presynaptic firing frequency. NNC decreased these synaptic responses and abolished the concomitant widespread Ca(2+) signals. Coherent with the interpretation that the LT-VACC amplified signals at the postsynaptic level, this conductance also amplified the responses of NS neurons to direct injection of sinusoidal current. Synaptic amplification thus is achieved via a positive feedback in which depolarizing signals activate an LT-VACC that, in turn, boosts these signals. The wide distribution of LT-VACC could support the active propagation of depolarizing signals, turning the complex NS neuritic tree into a relatively compact electrical compartment.

Hemichannel composition and electrical synaptic transmission: molecular diversity and its implications for electrical rectification

Unapposed hemichannels (HCs) formed by hexamers of gap junction proteins are now known to be involved in various cellular processes under both physiological and pathological conditions. On the other hand, less is known regarding how differences in the molecular composition of HCs impact electrical synaptic transmission between neurons when they form intercellular heterotypic gap junctions (GJs). Here we review data indicating that molecular differences between apposed HCs at electrical synapses are generally associated with rectification of electrical transmission. Furthermore, this association has been observed at both innexin and connexin (Cx) based electrical synapses. We discuss the possible molecular mechanisms underlying electrical rectification, as well as the potential contribution of intracellular soluble factors to this phenomenon. We conclude that asymmetries in molecular composition and sensitivity to cellular factors of each contributing hemichannel can profoundly influence the transmission of electrical signals, endowing electrical synapses with more complex functional properties.

Recurrent inhibition in motor systems, a comparative analysis

The review proposes a comparison between recurrent inhibition in motor systems of vertebrates and the leech nervous system, where a detailed cellular and functional analysis has been accomplished. A comparative study shows that recurrent inhibition is a conserved property in motor systems of phylogenetically distant species. Recurrent inhibition has been extensively characterized in the spinal cord of mammals, where Renshaw cells receive excitatory synaptic inputs from motoneurons (MNs) and, in turn, exert an inhibitory effect on the MNs. In the leech, a recurrent inhibitory circuit has been described, centered around a pair of nonspiking (NS) neurons. NS are linked to every excitatory MN through rectifying electrical junctions. And, in addition, the MNs are linked to the NS neurons through hyperpolarizing chemical synapses. Functional analysis of this leech circuit showed that heteronymous MNs in the leech are electrically coupled and this coupling is modulated by the membrane potential of NS neurons. Like Renshaw cells, the membrane potential of NS neurons oscillates in phase with rhythmic motor patterns. Functional analysis performed in the leech shows that NS influences the activity of MNs in the course of crawling suggesting that the recurrent inhibitory circuit modulates the motor performance.

Wide propagation of graded signals in nonspiking neurons

Signal processing in neuritic trees is ruled by the concerted action of passive and active membrane properties that, together, determine the degree of electrical compartmentalization of these trees. We analyzed how active properties modulate spatial propagation of graded signals in a pair of nonspiking (NS) neurons of the leech. NS neurons present a very extensive neuritic tree that mediates the interaction with all the excitatory motoneurons in leech ganglia. NS cells express voltage-activated Ca(2+) conductances (VACCs) that, under certain experimental conditions, evoke low-threshold spikes. We studied the distribution of calcium transients in NS neurons loaded with fluorescent calcium probes in response to low-threshold spikes, electrical depolarizing pulses, and synaptic inputs. The three types of stimuli evoked calcium transients of similar characteristics in the four main branches of the neuron. The magnitude of the calcium transients evoked by electrical pulses was a graded function of the change in NS membrane potential and depended on the baseline potential level. The underlying VACCs were partially inactivated at rest and strongly inactivated at -20 mV. Stimulation of mechanosensory pressure cells evoked calcium transients in NS neurons whose amplitude was a linear function of the amplitude of the postsynaptic response. The results evidenced that VACCs aid an efficient propagation of graded signals, turning the vast neuritic tree of NS cells into an electrically compact structure.

Effect of a nonspiking neuron on motor patterns of the leech

Premotor and motoneurons could play regulatory roles in motor control. We have investigated the role of a premotor nonspiking (NS) neuron of the leech nervous system in two locomotive patterns: swimming and crawling. The NS neuron is coupled through rectifying electrical junctions to all the excitatory motoneurons examined. In addition, activation of motoneurons evokes chemically mediated inhibitory responses in NS. During swimming and crawling, the NS membrane potential (Vm(NS)) oscillated phase locked to the motor output. Hyperpolarization or depolarization of NS had no effect on swimming, but hyperpolarization of NS slowed down the crawling activity and decreased the motoneuron firing frequency. Depolarization of NS increased the motoneuron activity, and, at stages where the crawling pattern was fading, depolarization of NS reinstated it. Future work should determine if NS is actually a member of the central pattern generator or a regulatory element.

Using a model to assess the role of the spatiotemporal pattern of inhibitory input and intrasegmental electrical coupling in the intersegmental and side-to-side coordination of motor neurons by the leech heartbeat central pattern generator

Previously we presented a quantitative description of the spatiotemporal pattern of inhibitory synaptic input from the heartbeat central pattern generator (CPG) to segmental motor neurons that drive heartbeat in the medicinal leech and the resultant coordination of CPG interneurons and motor neurons. To begin elucidating the mechanisms of coordination, we explore intersegmental and side-to-side coordination in an ensemble model of all heart motor neurons and their known synaptic inputs and electrical coupling. Model motor neuron intrinsic properties were kept simple, enabling us to determine the extent to which input and electrical coupling acting together can account for observed coordination in the living system in the absence of a substantive contribution from the motor neurons themselves. The living system produces an asymmetric motor pattern: motor neurons on one side fire nearly in synchrony (synchronous), whereas on the other they fire in a rear-to-front progression (peristaltic). The model reproduces the general trends of intersegmental and side-to-side phase relations among motor neurons, but the match with the living system is not quantitatively accurate. Thus realistic (experimentally determined) inputs do not produce similarly realistic output in our model, suggesting that motor neuron intrinsic properties may contribute to their coordination. By varying parameters that determine electrical coupling, conduction delays, intraburst synaptic plasticity, and motor neuron excitability, we show that the most important determinant of intersegmental and side-to-side phase relations in the model was the spatiotemporal pattern of synaptic inputs, although phasing was influenced significantly by electrical coupling.

In situ characterization of a rectifying electrical junction

Electrical synapses play significant roles in neural processing in invertebrate and vertebrate nervous systems. The view of electrical synapses as plain bidirectional intercellular channels represents a partial picture because rectifying electrical synapses expand the complexity in the communication capabilities of neurons. Rectification derives, mostly, from the sensitivity of electrical junctions to the transjunctional potential (V(j)) across the coupled cells. We analyzed the characteristics of this sensitivity and their effect on neuronal signaling, studying rectifying junctions present in the leech nervous system. The NS neurons, a pair of premotor nonspiking neurons present in each midbody ganglion, are electrically coupled to virtually every excitatory motor neuron. Studied at rest, only hyperpolarizing signals can be transmitted from NS to the motoneurons, and only depolarizing signals are conducted in the opposite direction. Our results show that small changes in the NS membrane potential (V(m)) exerted an effective control of the firing frequency of the CV motoneurons (excitor of circular muscles). This effect revealed the existence of a threshold V(j) across which the electrical synapse shifts from a nonconducting to a conducting state. The junction can operate as a relatively symmetrical bidirectional bridge provided that the transmitted signals do not cross this threshold transjunctional potential.

Extracellular matrix glycoproteins inhibit neurite outgrowth of different types of identified leech neurons in culture

We explored the contribution of inhibitory peanut-binding extracellular matrix glycoproteins to the regeneration of characteristic outgrowth patterns by different types of identified neurons. Adult leech neurons were isolated one by one and plated in culture on a substrate that consisted of the capsules that encase the CNS ganglia. On the inside surface of this substrate, a combination of growth-promoting and -inhibiting extracellular matrix glycoproteins regulates the regeneration of distinctive outgrowth patterns by different neuron types. The role of inhibitory glycoproteins that bind to peanut lectin was studied by perturbation experiments in which peanut lectin was added to the culture medium. The effects of peanut lectin on the outgrowth patterns depended on the specific cell type that was tested. Anterior pagoda neurons, which on capsules produce a bipolar outgrowth pattern, in the presence of the lectin multiplied the number of primary neurites and the total neurite length and also lost their bipolarity. Annulus erector motoneurons, which on capsules grow poorly, in the presence of peanut lectin sprouted 70% more neurites and duplicated their total neurite length. By contrast, Retzius neurons which grow profusely on ganglion capsules, in the presence of peanut lectin increased the number of primary neurites without increasing their total neurite length or branch points. When neurons were plated on plastic, peanut lectin added to the culture medium did not affect the growth of neurons, thus showing that the effects of peanut lectin were induced by blocking the binding of neurons to inhibitory glycoproteins on the capsules. These results show that regeneration of different neuron types has different regulation by inhibitory extracellular matrix molecules.

Estimating conductances of dual-recorded neurons within a network of coupled cells

Simultaneous pre- and postsynaptic cell recordings are used to calculate gap junction conductance based on an equivalent electrical circuit of an electrically coupled pair of cells. This calculation is imprecise when recording from a cell pair that is coupled to neighboring cells providing indirect conductance paths between the recorded cells. Despite this imprecision, junctional conductance has been calculated for coupled cell networks during the past 40 years since a more accurate method was lacking. The present study simulated a three-dimensional network of electrically coupled heterogeneous neurons and used mathematical modeling to reduce the complexity to the simplest equations that could more accurately estimate the electrical properties of dual-recorded cells in the network. Analyses of the simulations showed that knowledge of the number of unrecorded cells directly linked to the recorded cells and of the voltage responses of these recorded cells were largely sufficient to accurately predict the direct junctional resistance linking the recorded cells as well as the input resistance of the recorded cells that would exist in the absence of junctional coupling. All model parameters could be obtained from real dual-intracellular penetrations which allow electrophysiological recordings and intracellular staining.

Embryonic electrical connections appear to pre-figure a behavioral circuit in the leech CNS

During development, many embryos show electrical coupling among neurons that is spatially and temporally regulated. For example, in vertebrate embryos extensive dye coupling is seen during the period of circuit formation, suggesting that electrical connections could pre-figure circuits, but it has been difficult to identify which neuronal types are coupled. We have used the leech Hirudo medicinalis to follow the development of electrical connections within the circuit that produces local bending. This circuit consists of three layers of neurons: four mechanosensory neurons (P cells), 17 identified interneurons, and approximately 24 excitatory and inhibitory motor neurons. These neurons can be identified in embryos, and we followed the spatial and temporal dynamics as specific connections developed. Injecting Neurobiotin into identified cells of the circuit revealed that electrical connections were established within this circuit in a precise manner from the beginning. Connections first appeared between motor neurons; mechanosensory neurons and interneurons started to connect at least a day later. This timing correlates with the development of behaviors, so the pattern of emerging connectivity could explain the appearance first of spontaneous behaviors (driven by a electrically coupled motor network) and then of evoked behaviors (when sensory neurons and interneurons are added to the circuit).

Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors Induce Spontaneous Interneuronal Activity in the Leech Nervous System

Serotonin [5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT)] is a conspicuous neuromodulator of sensory–motor networks that affects a variety of neurons at different levels of the network hierarchy. Because of its many possible targets, it has been difficult to obtain a comprehensive picture of how 5-HT achieves its final modulatory output on any given network. Our hypothesis is that the profile of 5-HT actions is dictated by its pattern of release from endogenous sites. We tested this hypothesis in the leech nervous system by means of a selective serotonin reuptake blocker (SSRI), fluoxetine. Fluoxetine evoked barrages of synaptic potentials in identified sensory, motor, and interneurons. This effect was mimicked by the tricyclic antidepressants imipramine and clomipramine, and by the SSRI citalopram, with relative efficacies that matched their known relative selectivities for the 5-HT transporter. The synaptic responses evoked by fluoxetine in different neurons were temporally correlated, suggesting that they had a common origin. The profile of the synaptic responses matched that expected from the activation of the mechanosensory pressure cells, known to act by polysynaptic pathways. The results suggest that endogenous 5-HT acted on cord spanning interneurons. On the other hand, bath-applied 5-HT evoked an effect different from that of the SSRI. Taken together, the results evidenced that the pattern of action of the monoamine is dictated by the spatial distribution of the 5-HT release sites.

Synaptic integration in electrically coupled neurons

Interactions among chemical and electrical synapses regulate the patterns of electrical activity of vertebrate and invertebrate neurons. In this investigation we studied how electrical coupling influences the integration of excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs). Pairs of Retzius neurons of the leech are coupled by a nonrectifying electrical synapse by which chemically induced synaptic currents flow from one neuron to the other. Results from electrophysiology and modeling suggest that chemical synaptic inputs are located on the coupled neurites, at 7.5 microm from the electrical synapses. We also showed that the space constant of the coupled neurites was 100 microm, approximately twice their length, allowing the efficient spread of synaptic currents all along both coupled neurites. Based on this cytoarchitecture, our main finding was that the degree of electrical coupling modulates the amplitude of EPSPs in the driving neurite by regulating the leak of synaptic current to the coupled neurite, so that the amplitude of EPSPs in the driving neurite was proportional to the value of the coupling resistance. In contrast, synaptic currents arriving at the coupled neurite through the electrical synapse produced EPSPs of constant amplitude. This was because the coupling resistance value had inverse effects on the amount of current arriving and on the impedance of the neurite. We propose that by modulating the amplitude of EPSPs, electrical synapses could regulate the firing frequency of neurons.