Optogenetic Stimulation of Prefrontal Glutamatergic Neurons Enhances Recognition Memory

Perirhinal to prefrontal circuit in methamphetamine induced recognition memory deficits

Return to methamphetamine (meth) use is part of an overarching addictive disorder hallmarked by cognitive sequela and cortical dysfunction in individuals who use meth chronically. In rats, long access meth self-administration produces object recognition memory deficits due to drug-induced plasticity within the perirhinal cortex (PRH). PRH projections are numerous and include the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). To evaluate the role of the PRH-mPFC reciprocal circuit in novel object recognition memory, a rgAAV encoding GFP-tagged Cre recombinase was infused into the PRH or the mPFC and rats were tested for recognition memory. On test day, one group explored both familiar and novel objects. A second group explored only familiar objects. GFP and Fos expression were visualized in the mPFC or PRH. During exploration, PRH neurons receiving input from the mPFC were equally activated by exploration of novel and familiar objects. In contrast, PRH neurons that provide input to the mPFC were disproportionately activated by novel objects. Further, the percent of Fos + cells in the PRH positively correlated with recognition memory. As such, the flow of communication appears to be from the PRH to the mPFC. In agreement with this proposed directionality, chemogenetic inhibition of the PRH-mPFC circuit impaired object recognition memory, whereas chemogenetic activation in animals with a history of long access meth self-administration reversed the meth-induced recognition memory deficit. This finding informs future work aimed at understanding the role of the PRH, mPFC, and their connectivity in meth associated memory deficits. These data suggest a more complex circuitry governing recognition memory than previously indicated with anatomical or lesion studies.

Chemogenetic activation of prefrontal astroglia enhances recognition memory performance in rat

Prefrontal cortex (PFC) inputs to the hippocampus are supposed to be critical in memory processes. Astrocytes are involved in several brain functions, such as homeostasis, neurotransmission, synaptogenesis. However, their role in PFC-mediated modulation of memory has yet to be studied. The present study aims at uncovering the role of PFC astroglia in memory performance and synaptic plasticity in the hippocampus. Using chemogenetic and lesions approaches of infralimbic PFC (IL-PFC) astrocytes, we evaluated memory performance in the novel object recognition task (NOR) and dorsal hippocampus synaptic plasticity. We uncovered a surprising role of PFC astroglia in modulating object recognition memory. In opposition to the astroglia PFC lesion, we show that chemogenetic activation of IL-PFC astrocytes increased memory performance in the novel object recognition task and facilitated in vivo dorsal hippocampus synaptic metaplasticity. These results redefine the involvement of PFC in recognition mnemonic processing, uncovering an important role of PFC astroglia.

Rhythmic activation of excitatory neurons in the mouse frontal cortex improves the prefrontal cortex-mediated cognitive function

The prefrontal cortex (PFC) plays essential roles in cognitive processes. Previous studies have suggested the layer and the cell type-specific activation for cognitive enhancement. However, the mechanism by which a temporal pattern of activation affects cognitive function remains to be elucidated. Here, we investigated whether the specific activation of excitatory neurons in the superficial layers mainly in the PFC according to a rhythmic or nonrhythmic pattern could modulate the cognitive functions of normal mice. We used a C128S mutant of channelrhodopsin 2, a step function opsin, and administered two light illumination patterns: (i) alternating pulses of blue and yellow light for rhythmic activation or (ii) pulsed blue light only for nonrhythmic activation. Behavioral analyses were performed to compare the behavioral consequences of these two neural activation patterns. The alternating blue and yellow light pulses, but not the pulsed blue light only, significantly improved spatial working memory and social recognition without affecting motor activity or the anxiety level. These results suggest that the rhythmic, but not the nonrhythmic, activation could enhance cognitive functions. This study indicates that not only the population of neurons that are activated but also the pattern of activation plays a crucial role in the cognitive enhancement.

Neuronal circuitry for recognition memory of object and place in rodent models

Rats and mice are used for studying neuronal circuits underlying recognition memory due to their ability to spontaneously remember the occurrence of an object, its place and an association of the object and place in a particular environment. A joint employment of lesions, pharmacological interventions, optogenetics and chemogenetics is constantly expanding our knowledge of the neural basis for recognition memory of object, place, and their association. In this review, we summarize current studies on recognition memory in rodents with a focus on the novel object preference, novel location preference and object-in-place paradigms. The evidence suggests that the medial prefrontal cortex- and hippocampus-connected circuits contribute to recognition memory for object and place. Under certain conditions, the striatum, medial septum, amygdala, locus coeruleus and cerebellum are also involved. We propose that the neuronal circuitry for recognition memory of object and place is hierarchically connected and constructed by different cortical (perirhinal, entorhinal and retrosplenial cortices), thalamic (nucleus reuniens, mediodorsal and anterior thalamic nuclei) and primeval (hypothalamus and interpeduncular nucleus) modules interacting with the medial prefrontal cortex and hippocampus.

Alteration of Neural Pathways and Its Implications in Alzheimer’s Disease

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disease accompanied by cognitive and behavioral symptoms. These AD-related manifestations result from the alteration of neural circuitry by aggregated forms of amyloid-β (Aβ) and hyperphosphorylated tau, which are neurotoxic. From a neuroscience perspective, identifying neural circuits that integrate various inputs and outputs to determine behaviors can provide insight into the principles of behavior. Therefore, it is crucial to understand the alterations in the neural circuits associated with AD-related behavioral and psychological symptoms. Interestingly, it is well known that the alteration of neural circuitry is prominent in the brains of patients with AD. Here, we selected specific regions in the AD brain that are associated with AD-related behavioral and psychological symptoms, and reviewed studies of healthy and altered efferent pathways to the target regions. Moreover, we propose that specific neural circuits that are altered in the AD brain can be potential targets for AD treatment. Furthermore, we provide therapeutic implications for targeting neuronal circuits through various therapeutic approaches and the appropriate timing of treatment for AD.

AMPAkine CX516 alleviated chronic ethanol exposure-induced neurodegeneration and depressive-like behavior in mice

Chronic ethanol exposure (CEE) is associated with greater neurodegenerative effects and an increased risk of depression disorder. The AMPAR is thought to be involved in depression and a reduction in its GluA1 subunit was observed in the mouse hippocampus after CEE. AMPAkines are positive allosteric modulators of the AMPA receptor and have improved depressive-like behavior. However, the role of AMPARs in CEE-induced depressive-like behavior is not clear. It is unclear whether AMPAkines, positive allosteric agonists of AMPARs, protect against ethanol-induced depression. We investigated the effects of CX516 on ethanol-induced depressive-like behavior in a mouse model. CX516 (5 mg/kg) administration alleviated 20% (m/V) ethanol-induced depressive-like behavior in mice. Furthermore, CX516 significantly diminished the inhibition of the ERK1/2-BDNF-TrkB pathway in the hippocampus of ethanol-exposed mice. In addition, CX516 attenuated the levels of pro-inflammatory (IL-6, IL-1β), apoptosis (BAX, BCL-2), and neurodegeneration (FJC) in the mouse hippocampus induced by CEE.

Corticostriatal Suppression of Appetitive Pavlovian Conditioned Responding

The capacity to suppress learned responses is essential for animals to adapt in dynamic environments. Extinction is a process by which animals learn to suppress conditioned responding when an expected outcome is omitted. The infralimbic (IL) cortex to nucleus accumbens shell (NAcS) neural circuit is implicated in suppressing conditioned responding after extinction, especially in the context of operant cocaine-seeking behavior. However, the role of the IL-to-NAcS neural circuit in the extinction of responding to appetitive Pavlovian cues is unknown, and the psychological mechanisms involved in response suppression following extinction are unclear. We trained male Long Evans rats to associate a 10 s auditory conditioned stimulus (CS; 14 trials per session) with a sucrose unconditioned stimulus (US; 0.2 ml per CS) in a specific context, and then following extinction in a different context, precipitated a renewal of CS responding by presenting the CS alone in the original Pavlovian conditioning context. Unilateral, optogenetic stimulation of the IL-to-NAcS circuit selectively during CS trials suppressed renewal. In a separate experiment, IL-to-NAcS stimulation suppressed CS responding regardless of prior extinction and impaired extinction retrieval. Finally, IL-to-NAcS stimulation during the CS did not suppress the acquisition of Pavlovian conditioning but was required for the subsequent expression of CS responding. These results are consistent with multiple studies showing that the IL-to-NAcS neural circuit is involved in the suppression of operant cocaine-seeking, extending these findings to appetitive Pavlovian cues. The suppression of appetitive Pavlovian responding following IL-to-NAcS circuit stimulation, however, does not appear to be an extinction-dependent process.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Extinction is a form of inhibitory learning through which animals learn to suppress conditioned responding in the face of nonreinforcement. We investigated the role of the IL cortex inputs to the NAcS in the extinction of responding to appetitive Pavlovian cues and the psychological mechanisms involved in response suppression following extinction. Using in vivo optogenetics, we found that stimulating the IL-to-NAcS neural circuit suppressed context-induced renewal of conditioned responding after extinction. In a separate experiment, stimulating the IL-to-NAcS circuit suppressed conditioned responding in an extinction-independent manner. These findings can be used by future research aimed at understanding how corticostriatal circuits contribute to behavioral flexibility and mental disorders that involve the suppression of learned behaviors.

AMPA receptors mediate the pro-cognitive effects of electrical and optogenetic stimulation of the medial prefrontal cortex in antidepressant non-responsive Wistar-Kyoto rats

BACKGROUND

The chronic mild stress (CMS) procedure is a widely used animal model of depression, and its application in Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) rats has been validated as a model of antidepressant-refractory depression. While not responding to chronic treatment with antidepressant drugs, WKY rats do respond to acute deep brain stimulation (DBS) of the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). In antidepressant-responsive strains there is evidence suggesting a role for AMPA subtype of glutamate receptor in the action mechanism of both antidepressants and DBS.

METHODS

Animals were subjected to CMS for 6 to 8 weeks; sucrose intake was monitored weekly and novel object recognition (NOR) test was conducted following recovery from CMS. Wistars were treated chronically with venlafaxine (VEN), while WKY were treated acutely with either DBS, optogenetic stimulation (OGS) of virally-transduced (AAV5-hSyn-ChR2-EYFP) mPFC or ventral hippocampus, or acute intra-mPFC injection of the AMPA receptor positive allosteric modulator CX-516. The AMPA receptor antagonist NBQX was administered, at identical sites in mPFC, immediately following the exposure trial in the NOR.

RESULTS

Sucrose intake and NOR were suppressed by CMS, and restored by VEN in Wistars and by DBS, OGS, or CX-516 in WKY. However, OGS of the ventral hippocampal afferents to mPFC was ineffective. A low dose of NBQX selectively blocked the procognitive effect of VEN, DBS and OGS.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that activation of AMPA receptors in the mPFC represents a common pathway for the antidepressant effects of both conventional (VEN) and novel (DBS, OGS) antidepressant modalities, in both antidepressant responsive (Wistar) and antidepressant-resistant (WKY) rats.

Prefrontal Neural Ensembles Develop Selective Code for Stimulus Associations within Minutes of Novel Experiences

Prevailing theories posit that the hippocampus rapidly learns stimulus conjunctions during novel experiences, whereas the neocortex learns slowly through subsequent, off-line interaction with the hippocampus. Parallel evidence, however, shows that the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC; a critical node of the neocortical network supporting long-term memory storage) undergoes rapid modifications of gene expression, synaptic structure, and physiology at the time of encoding. These observations, along with impaired learning with disrupted mPFC, suggest that mPFC neurons may exhibit rapid neural plasticity during novel experiences; however, direct empirical evidence is lacking. We extracellularly recorded action potentials of cells in the prelimbic region of the mPFC, while male rats received a sequence of stimulus presentations for the first time in life. Moment-to-moment tracking of neural ensemble firing patterns revealed that the prelimbic network activity exhibited an abrupt transition within 1 min after the first encounter of an aversive but not neutral stimulus. This network-level change was driven by ∼15% of neurons that immediately elevated their spontaneous firing rates (FRs) and developed firing responses to a neutral stimulus preceding the aversive stimulus within a few instances of their pairings. When a new sensory stimulus was paired with the same aversive stimulus, about half of these neurons generalized firing responses to the new stimulus association. Thus, prelimbic neurons are capable of rapidly forming ensemble codes for novel stimulus associations within minutes. This circuit property may enable the mPFC to rapidly detect and selectively encode the central content of novel experiences.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT During a new experience, a region of the brain, called the hippocampus, rapidly forms its memory and later instructs another region, called the neocortex, that stores its content. Consistent with this dominant view, cells in the neocortex gradually strengthen the selectivity for the memory content over weeks after novel experiences. However, we still do not know precisely when these cells begin to develop the selectivity. We found that neocortical cells were capable of forming the selectivity for ongoing events within a few minutes of new experiences. This finding provides support for an alternative view that the neocortex works with, but not follows, the hippocampus to form new memories.

The medial prefrontal cortex - hippocampus circuit that integrates information of object, place and time to construct episodic memory in rodents: Behavioral, anatomical and neurochemical properties

Rats and mice have been demonstrated to show episodic-like memory, a prototype of episodic memory, as defined by an integrated memory of the experience of an object or event, in a particular place and time. Such memory can be assessed via the use of spontaneous object exploration paradigms, variably designed to measure memory for object, place, temporal order and object-location inter-relationships. We review the methodological properties of these tests, the neurobiology about time and discuss the evidence for the involvement of the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), entorhinal cortex (EC) and hippocampus, with respect to their anatomy, neurotransmitter systems and functional circuits. The systematic analysis suggests that a specific circuit between the mPFC, lateral EC and hippocampus encodes the information for event, place and time of occurrence into the complex episodic-like memory, as a top-down regulation from the mPFC onto the hippocampus. This circuit can be distinguished from the neuronal component memory systems for processing the individual information of object, time and place.

Prefrontal-hippocampal interaction during the encoding of new memories

The hippocampus rapidly forms associations among ongoing events as they unfold and later instructs the gradual stabilisation of their memory traces in the neocortex. Although this two-stage model of memory consolidation has gained substantial empirical support, parallel evidence from rodent studies suggests that the neocortex, in particular the medial prefrontal cortex, might work in concert with the hippocampus during the encoding of new experiences. This opinion article first summarises findings from behavioural, electrophysiological, and molecular studies in rodents that uncovered immediate changes in synaptic connectivity and neural selectivity in the medial prefrontal cortex during and shortly after novel experiences. Based on these findings, I then propose a model positing that the medial prefrontal cortex and hippocampus might use different strategies to encode information during novel experiences, leading to the parallel formation of complementary memory traces in the two regions. The hippocampus captures moment-to-moment changes in incoming inputs with accurate spatial and temporal contexts, whereas the medial prefrontal cortex may sort the inputs based on their similarity and integrates them over time. These processes of pattern recognition and integration enable the medial prefrontal cortex to, in real time, capture the central content of novel experience and emit relevancy signal that helps to enhance the contrast between the relevant and incidental features of the experience. This hypothesis serves as a framework for future investigations on the potential top-down modulation that the medial prefrontal cortex may exert over the hippocampus to enable the selective, perhaps more intelligent encoding of new information.

Topographical Visualization of the Reciprocal Projection between the Medial Septum and the Hippocampus in the 5XFAD Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease

It is widely known that the degeneration of neural circuits is prominent in the brains of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) patients. The reciprocal connectivity of the medial septum (MS) and hippocampus, which constitutes the septo-hippocampo-septal (SHS) loop, is known to be associated with learning and memory. Despite the importance of the reciprocal projections between the MS and hippocampus in AD, the alteration of bidirectional connectivity between two structures has not yet been investigated at the mesoscale level. In this study, we adopted AD animal model, five familial AD mutations (5XFAD) mice, and anterograde and retrograde tracers, BDA and DiI, respectively, to visualize the pathology-related changes in topographical connectivity of the SHS loop in the 5XFAD brain. By comparing 4.5-month-old and 14-month-old 5XFAD mice, we successfully identified key circuit components of the SHS loop altered in 5XFAD brains. Remarkably, the SHS loop began to degenerate in 4.5-month-old 5XFAD mice before the onset of neuronal loss. The impairment of connectivity between the MS and hippocampus was accelerated in 14-month-old 5XFAD mice. These results demonstrate, for the first time, topographical evidence for the degradation of the interconnection between the MS and hippocampus at the mesoscale level in a mouse model of AD. Our results provide structural and functional insights into the interconnectivity of the MS and hippocampus, which will inform the use and development of various therapeutic approaches that target neural circuits for the treatment of AD.

Impact of the metabotropic glutamate receptor7 (mGlu7) allosteric agonist, AMN082, on fear learning and memory and anxiety-like behavior

The present study was conducted to evaluate the influence of AMN082, the metabotropic glutamate receptor subtype 7 (mGlu₇) allosteric agonist on different stages of memory processes connected with fear conditioning in the passive avoidance (PA) learning task in mice and negative emotional state (anxiety-like) induced by ethanol- and morphine-withdrawal in the elevated plus maze (EPM) test in rats. To perform the PA test, AMN082 (1.25, 2.5 and 5 mg/kg, i. p.) was injected to interfere with (or inhibit) acquisition, consolidation, and retrieval processes. The retention latency in each group was recorded using a step-through passive avoidance task 24 h after training. In turn, in ethanol- and morphine-withdrawal rats, the influence of AMN082 on anxiety-like behavior was estimated in the EPM test 24 h- (ethanol) and 72- h (morphine) after the last dose of repeated drug administrations. In all experimental groups, AMN082 at the dose of 5 mg/kg significantly decreased the step-through latency of long-term memory in the PA task. These AMN082 effects were reversed by MMPIP (10 mg/kg), the antagonist of mGlu₇ receptor. AMN082 (2.5 and 5 mg/kg) also decreased ethanol- and morphine withdrawal-induced anxiety-like behavior in the EPM test, and this AMN082 (5 mg/kg) effect was counteracted by MMPIP pretreatment. Taken together, the results show that mGlu₇ is involved in fear learning to the context and anxiety-like state connected with unpleasant experiences after ethanol- and morphine withdrawal in rodents. However, it appears that functional dissociation exists between these two AMN082 effects.

Neurobiological substrates of persistent working memory deficits and cocaine-seeking in the prelimbic cortex of rats with a history of extended access to cocaine self-administration

Cocaine use disorder (CUD) is associated with prefrontal cortex dysfunction and cognitive deficits that may contribute to persistent relapse susceptibility. As the relationship between cognitive deficits, cortical abnormalities and drug seeking is poorly understood, development of relevant animal models is of high clinical importance. Here, we used an animal model to characterize working memory and reversal learning in rats with a history of extended access cocaine self-administration and prolonged abstinence. We also investigated immediate and long-term functional changes within the prelimbic cortex (PrL) in relation to cognitive performance and drug-seeking. Adult male rats underwent 6 days of short-access (1 h/day) followed by 12 days of long-access (6 h/day) cocaine self-administration, or received passive saline infusions. Next, rats were tested in delayed match-to-sample (DMS) and (non)match-to-sample (NMS) tasks, and finally in a single context + cue relapse test on day 90 of abstinence. We found that a history of chronic cocaine self-administration impaired working memory, though sparing reversal learning, and that the components of these cognitive measures correlated with later drug-seeking. Further, we found that dysregulated metabolic activity and mGlu5 receptor signaling in the PrL of cocaine rats correlated with past working memory performance and/or drug-seeking, as indicated by the analysis of cytochrome oxidase reactivity, mGlu5 and Homer 1b/c protein expression, as well as Arc mRNA expression in mGlu5-positive cells. These findings advocate for a persistent post-cocaine PrL dysfunction, rooted in ineffective compensatory changes and manifested as impaired working memory performance and hyperreactivity to cocaine cues. Considering the possible interplay between the neural correlates underlying post-cocaine cognitive deficits and drug-seeking, cognitive function should be evaluated and considered when developing neurobiologically-based treatments of cocaine relapse.

General anesthetic exposure in adolescent rats causes persistent maladaptations in cognitive and affective behaviors and neuroplasticity

Accumulating evidence indicates that exposure to general anesthetics during infancy and childhood can cause persistent cognitive impairment, alterations in synaptic plasticity, and, to a lesser extent, increased incidence of behavioral disorders. Unfortunately, the developmental parameters of susceptibility to general anesthetics are not well understood. Adolescence is a critical developmental period wherein multiple late developing brain regions may also be vulnerable to enduring general anesthetic effects. Given the breadth of the adolescent age span, this group potentially represents millions more individuals than those exposed during early childhood. In this study, isoflurane exposure within a well-characterized adolescent period in Sprague-Dawley rats elicited immediate and persistent anxiety- and impulsive-like responding, as well as delayed cognitive impairment into adulthood. These behavioral abnormalities were paralleled by atypical dendritic spine morphology in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and hippocampus (HPC), suggesting delayed anatomical maturation, and shifts in inhibitory function that suggest hypermaturation of extrasynaptic GABA_A receptor inhibition. Preventing this hypermaturation of extrasynaptic GABA_A receptor-mediated function in the PFC selectively reversed enhanced impulsivity resulting from adolescent isoflurane exposure. Taken together, these data demonstrate that the developmental window for susceptibility to enduring untoward effects of general anesthetics may be much longer than previously appreciated, and those effects may include affective behaviors in addition to cognition.

A Context-Based Analgesia Model in Rats: Involvement of Prefrontal Cortex

Cognition and pain share common neural substrates and interact reciprocally: chronic pain compromises cognitive performance, whereas cognitive processes modulate pain perception. In the present study, we established a non-drug-dependent rat model of context-based analgesia, where two different contexts (dark and bright) were matched with a high (52°C) or low (48°C) temperature in the hot-plate test during training. Before and after training, we set the temperature to the high level in both contexts. Rats showed longer paw licking latencies in trials with the context originally matched to a low temperature than those to a high temperature, indicating successful establishment of a context-based analgesic effect in rats. This effect was blocked by intraperitoneal injection of naloxone (an opioid receptor antagonist) before the probe. The context-based analgesic effect also disappeared after optogenetic activation or inhibition of the bilateral infralimbic or prelimbic sub-region of the prefrontal cortex. In brief, we established a context-based, non-drug dependent, placebo-like analgesia model in the rat. This model provides a new and useful tool for investigating the cognitive modulation of pain.

Phosphorylation of calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II in the rat dorsal medial prefrontal cortex is associated with alcohol-induced cognitive inflexibility

Repeated cycles of alcohol [ethanol (EtOH)] intoxication and withdrawal dysregulate excitatory glutamatergic systems in the brain and induce neuroadaptations in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) that contribute to cognitive dysfunction. The mPFC is composed of subdivisions that are functionally distinct, with dorsal regions facilitating drug-cue associations and ventral regions modulating new learning in the absence of drug. A key modulator of glutamatergic activity is the holoenzyme calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) that phosphorylates ionotropic glutamate receptors. Here, we examined the hypothesis that abstinence from chronic intermittent EtOH (CIE) exposure dysregulates CaMKII activity in the mPFC to impair cognitive flexibility. We used an operant model of strategy set shifting in male Long-Evans rats demonstrating reduced susceptibility to trial omissions during performance in a visual cue-guided task versus albino strains. Relative to naïve controls, rats experiencing approximately 10 days of abstinence from CIE vapor exposure demonstrated impaired performance during a procedural shift from visual cue to spatial location discrimination. Phosphorylation of CaMKII subtype α was upregulated in the dorsal, but not ventral mPFC of CIE-exposed rats, and was positively correlated with perseverative-like responding during the set shift. The findings suggest that abstinence from CIE exposure induces an undercurrent of kinase activity (e.g. CaMKII), which may promote aberrant glutamatergic responses in select regions of the mPFC. Given the role of the mPFC in modulating executive control of behavior, we propose that increased CaMKII subtype α activity reflects a dysregulated 'top-down' circuit that interferes with adaptive behavioral performance under changing environmental demands.

Hippocampal Neural Disinhibition Causes Attentional and Memory Deficits

Subconvulsive hippocampal neural disinhibition, that is reduced GABAergic inhibition, has been implicated in neuropsychiatric disorders characterized by attentional and memory deficits, including schizophrenia and age-related cognitive decline. Considering that neural disinhibition may disrupt both intra-hippocampal processing and processing in hippocampal projection sites, we hypothesized that hippocampal disinhibition disrupts hippocampus-dependent memory performance and, based on strong hippocampo-prefrontal connectivity, also prefrontal-dependent attention. In support of this hypothesis, we report that acute hippocampal disinhibition by microinfusion of the GABA-A receptor antagonist picrotoxin in rats impaired hippocampus-dependent everyday-type rapid place learning performance on the watermaze delayed-matching-to-place test and prefrontal-dependent attentional performance on the 5-choice-serial-reaction-time test, which does not normally require the hippocampus. For comparison, we also examined psychosis-related sensorimotor effects, using startle/prepulse inhibition (PPI) and locomotor testing. Hippocampal picrotoxin moderately increased locomotion and slightly reduced startle reactivity, without affecting PPI. In vivo electrophysiological recordings in the vicinity of the infusion site showed that picrotoxin mainly enhanced burst firing of hippocampal neurons. In conclusion, hippocampal neural disinhibition disrupts hippocampus-dependent memory performance and also manifests through deficits in not normally hippocampus-dependent attentional performance. These behavioral deficits may reflect a disrupted control of burst firing, which may disrupt hippocampal processing and cause aberrant drive to hippocampal projection sites.

Neural changes in Alzheimer's disease from circuit to molecule: Perspective of optogenetics

Alzheimer's disease (AD), as a crucial neurodegenerative disorder, affects neural activities at many levels. Synaptic plasticity and neural circuits are most susceptible in AD, but the detailed mechanism is unclear. Optogenetic tools provide unprecedented spatio-temporal specificity to stimulate specific neural circuits or synaptic molecules to reveal the precise function of normal brain and mechanism of deficits in AD models. Furthermore, using optogenetics to stimulate neurons can rescue learning and memory loss caused by AD. It also has possibility to use light to control the Neurotransmitter receptors and their downstream signal pathway. These technical methods have broad therapeutic application prospect.

Cognitive dysfunction in major depression and Alzheimer's disease is associated with hippocampal-prefrontal cortex dysconnectivity

Cognitive dysfunction is prevalent in psychiatric disorders. Deficits are observed in multiple domains, including working memory, executive function, attention, and information processing. Disability caused by cognitive dysfunction is frequently as debilitating as the prominent emotional disturbances. Interactions between the hippocampus and the prefrontal cortex are increasingly appreciated as an important link between cognition and emotion. Recent developments in optogenetics, imaging, and connectomics can enable the investigation of this circuit in a manner that is relevant to disease pathophysiology. The goal of this review is to shed light on the contributions of this circuit to cognitive dysfunction in neuropsychiatric disorders, focusing on Alzheimer's disease and depression.