Conditioning injury-induced spinal axon regeneration requires signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 activation

Sunitinib-mediated inhibition of STAT3 in skeletal muscle and spinal cord does not affect the disease in a mouse model of ALS

Variability in disease onset and progression is a hallmark of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), both in sporadic and genetic forms. Recently, we found that SOD1-G93A transgenic mice expressing the same amount of mutant SOD1 but with different genetic backgrounds, C57BL/6JOlaHsd and 129S2/SvHsd, show slow and rapid muscle wasting and disease progression, respectively. Here, we investigated the different molecular mechanisms underlying muscle atrophy. Although both strains showed similar denervation-induced degradation of muscle proteins, only the rapidly progressing mice exhibited early and sustained STAT3 activation that preceded atrophy in gastrocnemius muscle. We therefore investigated the therapeutic potential of sunitinib, a tyrosine kinase inhibitor known to inhibit STAT3 and prevent cancer-induced muscle wasting. Although sunitinib treatment reduced STAT3 activation in the gastrocnemius muscle and lumbar spinal cord, it did not preserve spinal motor neurons, improve neuromuscular impairment, muscle atrophy and disease progression in the rapidly progressing SOD1-G93A mice. Thus, the effect of sunitinib is not equally positive in different diseases associated with muscle wasting. Moreover, given the complex role of STAT3 in the peripheral and central compartments of the neuromuscular system, the present study suggests that its broad inhibition may lead to opposing effects, ultimately preventing a potential positive therapeutic action in ALS.

Molecular mechanisms of spinal cord injury repair across vertebrates: A comparative review

In humans and other adult mammals, axon regeneration is difficult in axotomized neurons. Therefore, spinal cord injury (SCI) is a devastating event that can lead to permanent loss of locomotor and sensory functions. Moreover, the molecular mechanisms of axon regeneration in vertebrates are not very well understood, and currently, no effective treatment is available for SCI. In striking contrast to adult mammals, many nonmammalian vertebrates such as reptiles, amphibians, bony fishes and lampreys can spontaneously resume locomotion even after complete SCI. In recent years, rapid progress in the development of next-generation sequencing technologies has offered valuable information on SCI. In this review, we aimed to provide a comparison of axon regeneration process across classical model organisms, focusing on crucial genes and signalling pathways that play significant roles in the regeneration of individually identifiable descending neurons after SCI. Considering the special evolutionary location and powerful regenerative ability of lamprey and zebrafish, they will be the key model organisms for ongoing studies on spinal cord regeneration. Detailed study of SCI in these model organisms will help in the elucidation of molecular mechanisms of neuron regeneration across species.

Neither injury induced macrophages within the nerve, nor the environment created by Wallerian degeneration is necessary for enhanced in vivo axon regeneration after peripheral nerve injury

BACKGROUND

Since the 1990s, evidence has accumulated that macrophages promote peripheral nerve regeneration and are required for enhancing regeneration in the conditioning lesion (CL) response. After a sciatic nerve injury, macrophages accumulate in the injury site, the nerve distal to that site, and the axotomized dorsal root ganglia (DRGs). In the peripheral nervous system, as in other tissues, the macrophage response is derived from both resident macrophages and recruited monocyte-derived macrophages (MDMs). Unresolved questions are: at which sites do macrophages enhance nerve regeneration, and is a particular population needed.

METHODS

Ccr2 knock-out (KO) and Ccr2gfp/gfp knock-in/KO mice were used to prevent MDM recruitment. Using these strains in a sciatic CL paradigm, we examined the necessity of MDMs and residents for CL-enhanced regeneration in vivo and characterized injury-induced nerve inflammation. CL paradigm variants, including the addition of pharmacological macrophage depletion methods, tested the role of various macrophage populations in initiating or sustaining the CL response. In vivo regeneration, measured from bilateral proximal test lesions (TLs) after 2 d, and macrophages were quantified by immunofluorescent staining.

RESULTS

Peripheral CL-enhanced regeneration was equivalent between crush and transection CLs and was sustained for 28 days in both Ccr2 KO and WT mice despite MDM depletion. Similarly, the central CL response measured in dorsal roots was unchanged in Ccr2 KO mice. Macrophages at both the TL and CL, but not between them, stained for the pro-regenerative marker, arginase 1. TL macrophages were primarily CCR2-dependent MDMs and nearly absent in Ccr2 KO and Ccr2gfp/gfp KO mice. However, there were only slightly fewer Arg1+ macrophages in CCR2 null CLs than controls due to resident macrophage compensation. Zymosan injection into an intact WT sciatic nerve recruited Arg1+ macrophages but did not enhance regeneration. Finally, clodronate injection into Ccr2gfp KO CLs dramatically reduced CL macrophages. Combined with the Ccr2gfp KO background, depleting MDMs and TL macrophages, and a transection CL, physically removing the distal nerve environment, nearly all macrophages in the nerve were removed, yet CL-enhanced regeneration was not impaired.

CONCLUSIONS

Macrophages in the sciatic nerve are neither necessary nor sufficient to produce a CL response.

Emerging role of extracellular vesicles and exogenous stimuli in molecular mechanisms of peripheral nerve regeneration

Peripheral nerve injuries lead to significant morbidity and adversely affect quality of life. The peripheral nervous system harbors the unique trait of autonomous regeneration; however, achieving successful regeneration remains uncertain. Research continues to augment and expedite successful peripheral nerve recovery, offering promising strategies for promoting peripheral nerve regeneration (PNR). These include leveraging extracellular vesicle (EV) communication and harnessing cellular activation through electrical and mechanical stimulation. Small extracellular vesicles (sEVs), 30-150 nm in diameter, play a pivotal role in regulating intercellular communication within the regenerative cascade, specifically among nerve cells, Schwann cells, macrophages, and fibroblasts. Furthermore, the utilization of exogenous stimuli, including electrical stimulation (ES), ultrasound stimulation (US), and extracorporeal shock wave therapy (ESWT), offers remarkable advantages in accelerating and augmenting PNR. Moreover, the application of mechanical and electrical stimuli can potentially affect the biogenesis and secretion of sEVs, consequently leading to potential improvements in PNR. In this review article, we comprehensively delve into the intricacies of cell-to-cell communication facilitated by sEVs and the key regulatory signaling pathways governing PNR. Additionally, we investigated the broad-ranging impacts of ES, US, and ESWT on PNR.

STAT3 protects dopaminergic neurons against degeneration in animal model of Parkinson's disease

INTRODUCTION

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the most prevalent disorder of the basal ganglia, propagated by the degeneration of axon terminals within the striatum and subsequent loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra (SN). Exposure of environmental neurotoxins and mutations of several mitochondrial and proteasomal genes are primarily responsible.

METHODS

To determine whether signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) could protect dopaminergic neurons against degeneration, we first screened it in the in vitro capacity using immortalized rat dopaminergic N27 cells under 6-OHDA neurotoxicity. We then evaluated the effectiveness of constitutively active (ca) STAT3 as a neuroprotective agent on N27 cells in a 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) induced rat model of PD and compared it to control animals or animals where AAV/caRheb was expressed in SN. Behavioral outcomes were assessed using rotational and cylinder assays and mitochondrial function using reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels.

RESULTS

Using flow cytometry, the in vitro analysis determined caSTAT3 significantly decreased dopaminergic neuronal death under 6-OHDA treatment conditions. Importantly, in vivo overexpression of caSTAT3 in SN dopaminergic neurons using AAV-mediated expression demonstrated significant neuroprotection of dopaminergic neurons following 6-OHDA. Both caSTAT3 and caRheb + caSTAT3 co-injection into substantia nigra reduced D-amphetamine-induced rotational behavior and increased ipsilateral forelimb function when compared to control animals. In addition, caSTAT3 decreased mitochondrial ROS production following 6-OHDA induced neurotoxicity.

CONCLUSION

caSTAT3 confers resistance against ROS production in mitochondria of susceptible SN dopaminergic neurons potentially offering a new avenue for treatment against PD.

Unleashing Axonal Regeneration Capacities: Neuronal and Non-neuronal Changes After Injuries to Dorsal Root Ganglion Neuron Central and Peripheral Axonal Branches

Peripheral nerves obtain remarkable regenerative capacity while central nerves can hardly regenerate following nerve injury. Sensory neurons in the dorsal root ganglion (DRG) are widely used to decipher the dissimilarity between central and peripheral axonal regeneration as axons of DRG neurons bifurcate into the regeneration-incompetent central projections and the regeneration-competent peripheral projections. A conditioning peripheral branch injury facilitates central axonal regeneration and enables the growth and elongation of central axons. Peripheral axonal injury stimulates neuronal calcium influx, alters the start-point chromatin states, increases chromatin accessibility, upregulates the expressions of regeneration-promoting genes and the synthesis of proteins, and supports axonal regeneration. Following central axonal injury, the responses of DRG neurons are modest, resulting in poor intrinsic growth ability. Some non-neuronal cells in DRGs, for instance satellite glial cells, also exhibit diminished injury responses to central axon injury as compared with peripheral axon injury. Moreover, DRG central and peripheral axonal branches are respectively surrounded by inhibitory glial scars generated by central glial cells and a permissive microenvironment generated by Schwann cells and macrophages. The aim of this review is to look at changes of DRG neurons and non-neuronal cells after peripheral and central axon injuries and summarize the contributing roles of both neuronal intrinsic regenerative capacities and surrounding microenvironments in axonal regeneration.

Neuroinflammation: Breaking barriers and bridging gaps

Neurons are the cells of the nervous system and are responsible for every thought, movement and perception. Immune cells are the cells of the immune system, constantly protecting from foreign pathogens. Understanding the interaction between the two systems is especially important in disease states such as autoimmune or neurodegenerative disease. Unfortunately, this interaction is typically detrimental to the host. However, recent efforts have focused on how neurons and immune cells interact, either directly or indirectly, following traumatic injury to the nervous system. The outcome of this interaction can be beneficial - leading to successful neural repair, or detrimental - leading to functional deficits, depending on where the injury occurs. This review will discuss our understanding of neuron-immune cell interactions after traumatic injury to both the peripheral and central nervous system.

Discovery of therapeutic targets for spinal cord injury based on molecular mechanisms of axon regeneration after conditioning lesion

BACKGROUND

Preinjury of peripheral nerves triggers dorsal root ganglia (DRG) axon regeneration, a biological change that is more pronounced in young mice than in old mice, but the complex mechanism has not been clearly explained. Here, we aim to gain insight into the mechanisms of axon regeneration after conditioning lesion in different age groups of mice, thereby providing effective therapeutic targets for central nervous system (CNS) injury.

METHODS

The microarray GSE58982 and GSE96051 were downloaded and analyzed to identify differentially expressed genes (DEGs). The protein-protein interaction (PPI) network, the miRNA-TF-target gene network, and the drug-hub gene network of conditioning lesion were constructed. The L4 and L5 DRGs, which were previously axotomized by the sciatic nerve conditioning lesions, were harvested for qRT-PCR. Furthermore, histological and behavioral tests were performed to assess the therapeutic effects of the candidate drug telmisartan in spinal cord injury (SCI).

RESULTS

A total of 693 and 885 DEGs were screened in the old and young mice, respectively. Functional enrichment indicates that shared DEGs are involved in the inflammatory response, innate immune response, and ion transport. QRT-PCR results showed that in DRGs with preinjury of peripheral nerve, Timp1, P2ry6, Nckap1l, Csf1, Ccl9, Anxa1, and C3 were upregulated, while Agtr1a was downregulated. Based on the bioinformatics analysis of DRG after conditioning lesion, Agtr1a was selected as a potential therapeutic target for the SCI treatment. In vivo experiments showed that telmisartan promoted axonal regeneration after SCI by downregulating AGTR1 expression.

CONCLUSION

This study provides a comprehensive map of transcriptional changes that discriminate between young and old DRGs in response to injury. The hub genes and their related drugs that may affect the axonal regeneration program after conditioning lesion were identified. These findings revealed the speculative pathogenic mechanism involved in conditioning-dependent regenerative growth and may have translational significance for the development of CNS injury treatment in the future.

Inhibition of miR-221-3p promotes axonal regeneration and repair of primary sensory neurons via regulating p27 expression

This study aimed to explore the key microRNA (miRNA) playing a vital role in axonal regeneration with a hostile microenvironment after spinal cord injury. Based on the theory that sciatic nerve conditioning injury (SNCI) could promote the repair of the injured dorsal column. Differentially expressed miRNAs were screened according to the microarray, revealing that 47 known miRNAs were differentially expressed after injury and perhaps involved in nerve regeneration. Among the 47 miRNAs, the expression of miR-221-3p decreased sharply in the SNCI group compared with the simple dorsal column lesion (SDCL) group. Subsequently, it was confirmed that p27 was the target gene of miR-221-3p from luciferase reporter assay. Further, we found that inhibition of miR-221-3p expression could specifically target p27 to upregulate the expression of growth-associated protein 43 (GAP-43), α-tubulin acetyltransferase (α-TAT1) together with α-tubulin, and advance the regeneration of dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neuronal axons. Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans (CSPGs) are the main components of glial scar, which can hinder the extension and growth of damaged neuronal axons. After CSPGs were used in this study, the results demonstrated that restrained miR-221-3p expression also via p27 promoted the upregulation of GAP-43, α-TAT1, and α-tubulin and enhanced the axonal growth of DRG neurons. Hence, miR-221-3p could contribute significantly to the regeneration of DRG neurons by specifically regulating p27 in the p27/CDK2/GAP-43 and p27/α-TAT1/α-tubulin pathways even in the inhibitory environment with CSPGs.

Driving axon regeneration by orchestrating neuronal and non-neuronal innate immune responses via the IFNγ-cGAS-STING axis

The coordination mechanism of neural innate immune responses for axon regeneration is not well understood. Here, we showed that neuronal deletion of protein tyrosine phosphatase non-receptor type 2 sustains the IFNγ-STAT1 activity in retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) to promote axon regeneration after injury, independent of mTOR or STAT3. DNA-damage-induced cGAMP synthase (cGAS)-stimulator of interferon genes (STINGs) activation is the functional downstream signaling. Directly activating neuronal STING by cGAMP promotes axon regeneration. In contrast to the central axons, IFNγ is locally translated in the injured peripheral axons and upregulates cGAS expression in Schwann cells and infiltrating blood cells to produce cGAMP, which promotes spontaneous axon regeneration as an immunotransmitter. Our study demonstrates that injured peripheral nervous system (PNS) axons can direct the environmental innate immune response for self-repair and that the neural antiviral mechanism can be harnessed to promote axon regeneration in the central nervous system (CNS).

Unleashing Intrinsic Growth Pathways in Regenerating Peripheral Neurons

Common mechanisms of peripheral axon regeneration are recruited following diverse forms of damage to peripheral nerve axons. Whether the injury is traumatic or disease related neuropathy, reconnection of axons to their targets is required to restore function. Supporting peripheral axon regrowth, while not yet available in clinics, might be accomplished from several directions focusing on one or more of the complex stages of regrowth. Direct axon support, with follow on participation of supporting Schwann cells is one approach, emphasized in this review. However alternative approaches might include direct support of Schwann cells that instruct axons to regrow, manipulation of the inflammatory milieu to prevent ongoing bystander axon damage, or use of inflammatory cytokines as growth factors. Axons may be supported by a growing list of growth factors, extending well beyond the classical neurotrophin family. The understanding of growth factor roles continues to expand but their impact experimentally and in humans has faced serious limitations. The downstream signaling pathways that impact neuron growth have been exploited less frequently in regeneration models and rarely in human work, despite their promise and potency. Here we review the major regenerative signaling cascades that are known to influence adult peripheral axon regeneration. Within these pathways there are major checkpoints or roadblocks that normally check unwanted growth, but are an impediment to robust growth after injury. Several molecular roadblocks, overlapping with tumour suppressor systems in oncology, operate at the level of the perikarya. They have impacts on overall neuron plasticity and growth. A second approach targets proteins that largely operate at growth cones. Addressing both sites might offer synergistic benefits to regrowing neurons. This review emphasizes intrinsic aspects of adult peripheral axon regeneration, emphasizing several molecular barriers to regrowth that have been studied in our laboratory.

Chrysophanol facilitates long-term neurological recovery through limiting microglia-mediated neuroinflammation after ischemic stroke in mice

BACKGROUND

Inflammation plays an important role in ischemic brain injury and affects brain recovery and neuroplasticity. Chrysophanol (CHR), has attracted attention for its protective effects through immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory properties. However, the effect of CHR for brain recovery and neuroplasticity is not clear. The current study aimed to investigate the effect of CHR in the chronic phase of stroke in mice, and to elucidate the underlying mechanisms.

METHODS

C57BL/6 mice were subjected to treatment with Vehicle or CHR immediately through intraperitoneal injection daily for 14 d after distal middle cerebral artery occlusion (dMCAO). Neurological deficits were monitored up to 28 days after stroke. Nissl and Golgi stain, neural plasticity, and microglia-associated inflammatory cytokines were detected. Primary cortical neuron and BV2 microglia cell lines were employed to explore the underlying mechanism in vitro.

RESULTS

Compared with Vehicle group, CHR mitigated the histological damage, facilitated the neural plasticity and improved the neurological function up to 4 weeks after stroke. In vitro, CHR promoted the complexity of neurons and the spine density by modulating microglial polarization and reducing the expression of microglia-associated inflammatory cytokines, especially IL-6. In vivo, microglia activation and inflammatory cytokines were significantly increased after dMCAO and downregulated by CHR. Further investigation showed STAT3 is the major downstream effector of IL-6 signaling.

CONCLUSIONS

CHR ameliorated microenvironment for neural plasticity and exhibited neuroprotection via arresting microglia toward pro-inflammatory phenotype and downregulation of the expressions of pro-inflammatory cytokines, especially of IL-6. IL-6-STAT3 signaling might be CHR's therapeutic target for neuroinflammatory responses after stroke.

Reprogramming neurons for regeneration: The fountain of youth

Neurons in the central nervous system (CNS) are terminally differentiated cells that gradually lose their ability to support regeneration during maturation due to changes in transcriptomic and chromatin landscape. Similar transcriptomic changes also occur during development when stem cells differentiate into different types of somatic cells. Importantly, differentiated cells can be reprogrammed back to induced pluripotent stems cells (iPSCs) via global epigenetic remodeling by combined overexpression of pluripotent reprogramming factors, including Oct4, Sox2, Klf4, c-Myc, Nanog, and/or Lin28. Moreover, recent findings showed that many proneural transcription factors were able to convert non-neural somatic cells into neurons bypassing the pluripotent stage via direct reprogramming. Interestingly, many of these factors have recently been identified as key regulators of CNS neural regeneration. Recent studies indicated that these factors could rejuvenate mature CNS neurons back to a younger state through cellular state reprogramming, thus favoring regeneration. Here we will review some recent findings regarding the roles of genetic cellular state reprogramming in regulation of neural regeneration and explore the potential underlying molecular mechanisms. Moreover, by using newly emerging techniques, such as multiomics sequencing with big data analysis and Crispr-based gene editing, we will discuss future research directions focusing on better revealing cellular state reprogramming-induced remodeling of chromatin landscape and potential translational application.

Microtubule Dynamics Following Central and Peripheral Nervous System Axotomy

Disturbance in the neuronal network leads to instability in the microtubule (MT) railroad of axons, causing hindrance in the intra-axonal transport and making it difficult to re-establish the broken network. Peripheral nervous system (PNS) neurons can stabilize their MTs, leading to the formation of regeneration-promoting structures called "growth cones". However, central nervous system (CNS) neurons lack this intrinsic reparative capability and, instead, form growth-incompetent structures called "retraction bulbs", which have a disarrayed MT network. It is evident from various studies that although axonal regeneration depends on both cell-extrinsic and cell-intrinsic factors, any therapy that aims at axonal regeneration ultimately converges onto MTs. Understanding the neuronal MT dynamics will help develop effective therapeutic strategies in diseases where the MT network gets disrupted, such as spinal cord injury, traumatic brain injury, multiple sclerosis, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. It is also essential to know the factors that aid or inhibit MT stabilization. In this review, we have discussed the MT dynamics postaxotomy in the CNS and PNS, and factors that can directly influence MT stability in various diseases.

Phenotypic Screening Following Transcriptomic Deconvolution to Identify Transcription Factors Mediating Axon Growth Induced by a Kinase Inhibitor

After injury to the central nervous system (CNS), both neuron-intrinsic limitations on regenerative responses and inhibitory factors in the injured CNS environment restrict regenerative axon growth. Instances of successful axon regrowth offer opportunities to identify features that differentiate these situations from that of the normal adult CNS. One such opportunity is provided by the kinase inhibitor RO48, which dramatically enhances neurite outgrowth of neurons in vitro and substantially increased contralateral sprouting of corticospinal tract neurons when infused intraventricularly following unilateral pyramidotomy. The authors present here a transcriptomic deconvolution of RO48-associated axon growth, with the goal of identifying transcriptional regulators associated with axon growth in the CNS. Through the use of RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) and transcription factor binding site enrichment analysis, the authors identified a list of transcription factors putatively driving differential gene expression during RO48-induced neurite outgrowth of rat hippocampal neurons in vitro. The 82 transcription factor motifs identified in this way included some with known association to axon growth regulation, such as Jun, Klf4, Myc, Atf4, Stat3, and Nfatc2, and many with no known association to axon growth. A phenotypic loss-of-function screen was carried out to evaluate these transcription factors for their roles in neurite outgrowth; this screen identified several potential outgrowth regulators. Subsequent validation suggests that the Forkhead box (Fox) family transcription factor Foxp2 restricts neurite outgrowth, while FoxO subfamily members Foxo1 and Foxo3a promote neurite outgrowth. The authors' combined transcriptomic-phenotypic screening strategy therefore allowed identification of novel transcriptional regulators of neurite outgrowth downstream of a multitarget kinase inhibitor.

[Regulatory role of long non-coding RNA in peripheral nerve injury and neural regeneration]

Objective

To summarize the regulatory role of long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) in peripheral nerve injury (PNI) and neural regeneration.

Methods

The characteristics and mechanisms of lncRNA were summarized and its regulatory role in PNI and neural regeneration were elaborated by referring to relevant domestic and foreign literature in recent years.

Results

Neuropathic pain and denervated muscle atrophy are common complications of PNI, affecting patients' quality of life. Numerous lncRNAs are upregulated after PNI, which promote the progress of neuropathic pain by regulating nerve excitability and neuroinflammation. Several lncRNAs are found to promote the progress of denervated muscle atrophy. Importantly, peripheral nerve regeneration occurs after PNI. LncRNAs promote peripheral nerve regeneration through promoting neuronal axonal outgrowth and the proliferation and migration of Schwann cells.

Conclusion

At present, the research on lncRNA regulating PNI and neural regeneration is still in its infancy. The specific mechanism remains to be further explored. How to achieve clinical translation of experimental results is also a major challenge for future research.

Toll-Like Receptor 9-Mediated Neuronal Innate Immune Reaction Is Associated with Initiating a Pro-Regenerative State in Neurons of the Dorsal Root Ganglia Non-Associated with Sciatic Nerve Lesion

One of the changes brought about by Wallerian degeneration distal to nerve injury is disintegration of axonal mitochondria and consequent leakage of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)—the natural ligand for the toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9). RT-PCR and immunohistochemical or Western blot analyses were used to detect TLR9 mRNA and protein respectively in the lumbar (L4-L5) and cervical (C7-C8) dorsal root ganglia (DRG) ipsilateral and contralateral to a sterile unilateral sciatic nerve compression or transection. The unilateral sciatic nerve lesions led to bilateral increases in levels of both TLR9 mRNA and protein not only in the lumbar but also in the remote cervical DRG compared with naive or sham-operated controls. This upregulation of TLR9 was linked to activation of the Nuclear Factor kappa B (NFκB) and nuclear translocation of the Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription 3 (STAT3), implying innate neuronal immune reaction and a pro-regenerative state in uninjured primary sensory neurons of the cervical DRG. The relationship of TLR9 to the induction of a pro-regenerative state in the cervical DRG neurons was confirmed by the shorter lengths of regenerated axons distal to ulnar nerve crush following a previous sciatic nerve lesion and intrathecal chloroquine injection compared with control rats. The results suggest that a systemic innate immune reaction not only triggers the regenerative state of axotomized DRG neurons but also induces a pro-regenerative state further along the neural axis after unilateral nerve injury.

HGF and MET: From Brain Development to Neurological Disorders

Hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) and its tyrosine kinase receptor, encoded by the MET cellular proto-oncogene, are expressed in the nervous system from pre-natal development to adult life, where they are involved in neuronal growth and survival. In this review, we highlight, beyond the neurotrophic action, novel roles of HGF-MET in synaptogenesis during post-natal brain development and the connection between deregulation of MET expression and developmental disorders such as autism spectrum disorder (ASD). On the pharmacology side, HGF-induced MET activation exerts beneficial neuroprotective effects also in adulthood, specifically in neurodegenerative disease, and in preclinical models of cerebral ischemia, spinal cord injuries, and neurological pathologies, such as Alzheimer’s disease (AD), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), and multiple sclerosis (MS). HGF is a key factor preventing neuronal death and promoting survival through pro-angiogenic, anti-inflammatory, and immune-modulatory mechanisms. Recent evidence suggests that HGF acts on neural stem cells to enhance neuroregeneration. The possible therapeutic application of HGF and HGF mimetics for the treatment of neurological disorders is discussed.

CNTF-STAT3-IL-6 Axis Mediates Neuroinflammatory Cascade across Schwann Cell-Neuron-Microglia

Neuroinflammation is a crucial mechanism in many neurological disorders. Injury to the peripheral sensory nerves leads to a neuroinflammatory response in the somatosensory pathway, from dorsal root ganglia (DRG) to the spinal cord, contributing to neuropathic pain. How the immune reaction is initiated peripherally and propagated to the spinal cord remains less clear. Here, we find that ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF), highly expressed in Schwann cells, mediates neuroinflammatory response through the activating signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) and inducing interleukin 6 (IL-6) in sensory neurons. Cntf deficiency attenuates neuroinflammation in DRG and the spinal cord with alleviated pain post-injury. Recombinant CNTF applied to the sensory nerves recapitulates neuroinflammation in the DRG and spinal cord, with consequent pain development. We delineate the CNTF-STAT3-IL-6 axis in mediating the onset and progression of the inflammatory cascade from the periphery to the spinal cord with therapeutic implications for neuropathic pain.

The bidirectional role of the JAK2/STAT3 signaling pathway and related mechanisms in cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury

The Janus kinase 2/signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (JAK2/STAT3) signaling pathway, a well-conserved and basic intracellular signaling cascade, is mostly inactivated under basal conditions, although it can be phosphorylated under extracellular stimulation; in addition, it can influence the transcription and expression of multiple genes involved in biological processes such as cellular growth, metabolism, differentiation, degradation and angiogenesis. The inflammatory response, apoptosis, oxidative stress and angiogenesis are the main factors involved in the pathogenesis of ischemic stroke. Numerous studies have confirmed that the JAK2/STAT3 axis can be activated rapidly by ischemic stress, which is closely related to the regulation of these important pathological processes. However, different opinions on the specific role of this signaling pathway remain. In this paper, we review and summarize previous studies on the JAK2/STAT3 pathway in ischemic stroke.

Optic nerve regeneration screen identifies multiple genes restricting adult neural repair

Adult mammalian central nervous system (CNS) trauma interrupts neural networks and, because axonal regeneration is minimal, neurological deficits persist. Repair via axonal growth is limited by extracellular inhibitors and cell-autonomous factors. Based on results from a screen in vitro, we evaluate nearly 400 genes through a large-scale in vivo regeneration screen. Suppression of 40 genes using viral-driven short hairpin RNAs (shRNAs) promotes retinal ganglion cell (RGC) axon regeneration after optic nerve crush (ONC), and most are validated by separate CRISPR-Cas9 editing experiments. Expression of these axon-regeneration-suppressing genes is not significantly altered by axotomy. Among regeneration-limiting genes, loss of the interleukin 22 (IL-22) cytokine allows an early, yet transient, inflammatory response in the retina after injury. Reduced IL-22 drives concurrent activation of signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (Stat3) and dual leucine zipper kinase (DLK) pathways and upregulation of multiple neuron-intrinsic regeneration-associated genes (RAGs). Including IL-22, our screen identifies dozens of genes that limit CNS regeneration. Suppression of these genes in the context of axonal damage could support improved neural repair.

MiR-495 regulates cell proliferation and apoptosis in H2O2 stimulated rat spinal cord neurons through targeting signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3)

Background

MicroRNA-495 (miR-495) is a post-translational modulator that performs several functions, and it is involved in several disease states. On the other hand, the physiological functions of miR-495 in H₂O₂ stimulated mouse spinal cord neuronal dysfunction have not yet been fully understood.

Methods

In this study, we speculated that miR-495 may regulate the expression of STAT3 in the processes of neuronal proliferation and apoptosis following spinal cord injury (SCI). Cell viability was assessed with methyl thiazolyl tetrazolium (MTT) assay. Caspase-3 activity was assayed with ELISA. Cellular apoptotic changes were measured with TUNEL assay. Intracellular ROS production was determined by measuring uptake of dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate (DCFH-DA; PCR was used to assay the mRNA expression of STAT3 gene bearing predicted targeting positions for miR-495, while qRT-PCR was used to measure miR-495 mRNA.

Results

The results demonstrated that treatment of SCNs with H₂O₂ led to a significant decrease in cell survival, while it enhanced apoptosis. The H₂O₂ treatment induced cell membrane dysfunction, and increased ROS levels and DNA damage. Interestingly, the expression of miR-495 was markedly suppressed when SCNs were exposed to H₂O₂. However, miR-495 overexpression reversed H₂O₂-induced cytotoxicity and apoptosis in SCNs. Moreover, H₂O₂ exposure elevated protein and mRNA concentrations of STAT3 in SCNs. Bioinformatics analysis showed likely binding domains of miR-495 in the 3'-untranslated regions of STAT3 in SCNs. MiR-495 loss-of-function and gain-of-function significantly up-regulated and down-regulated both STAT3 mRNA and protein expressions, respectively, in SCNs.

Conclusions

miR-495 overexpression inhibited H₂O₂-induced SCN dysfunction. This mechanism was mediated through the down-regulation of STAT3 expression.

Mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes: therapeutic opportunities and challenges for spinal cord injury

Spinal cord injury (SCI) often leads to serious motor and sensory dysfunction of the limbs below the injured segment. SCI not only results in physical and psychological harm to patients but can also cause a huge economic burden on their families and society. As there is no effective treatment method, the prevention, treatment, and rehabilitation of patients with SCI have become urgent problems to be solved. In recent years, mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have attracted more attention in the treatment of SCI. Although MSC therapy can reduce injured volume and promote axonal regeneration, its application is limited by tumorigenicity, a low survival rate, and immune rejection. Accumulating literature shows that exosomes have great potential in the treatment of SCI. In this review, we summarize the existing MSC-derived exosome studies on SCI and discuss the advantages and challenges of treating SCI based on exosomes derived from MSCs.

The Mechanisms of Peripheral Nerve Preconditioning Injury on Promoting Axonal Regeneration

Two major factors contribute to the failure of axonal regrowth in the central nervous system (CNS), namely, the neuronal intrinsic regenerative capacity and the extrinsic local inhibitory microenvironments. However, a preconditioning peripheral nerve lesion could substantially enhance the regeneration of central axons following a subsequent spinal cord injury. In the present review, we summarize the molecular mechanisms of the preconditioning injury effect on promoting axonal regeneration. The injury signal transduction resulting from preconditioning peripheral nerve injury regulates the RAG expression to enhance axonal regeneration. Importantly, preconditioning peripheral nerve injury triggers interactions between neurons and nonneuronal cells to amplify and maintain their effects. Additionally, the preconditioning injury impacts mitochondria, protein, and lipid synthesis. All these coordinated changes endow axonal regeneration.

Quantitative Assessment of Neurite Outgrowth Over Growth Promoting or Inhibitory Substrates

The use of sensory neurons and assessment of neurite outgrowth in vitro is an important part of understanding neuronal development and plasticity. Cultures of rat dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons provide quantitative results very quickly and, when grown on growth promoting or inhibitory substrates, can be utilized to study axonal growth, neurotrophic dependence, and structure and function of growth cones. Since we are interested in axon regeneration and targeting, we have sought to promote neurite outgrowth by refining the techniques of growing DRG neurons in culture. This chapter describes detailed methods for the dissection and purification of DRG neurons and quantitative assessment of neurite on promoting or inhibitory substrates.

Neural circuit repair after central nervous system injury

Central nervous system injury often causes lifelong impairment of neural function, because the regenerative ability of axons is limited, making a sharp contrast to the successful regeneration that is seen in the peripheral nervous system. Nevertheless, partial functional recovery is observed, because axonal branches of damaged or undamaged neurons sprout and form novel relaying circuits. Using a lot of animal models such as the spinal cord injury model or the optic nerve injury model, previous studies have identified many factors that promote or inhibit axonal regeneration or sprouting. Molecules in the myelin such as myelin-associated glycoprotein, Nogo-A or oligodendrocyte-myelin glycoprotein, or molecules found in the glial scar such as chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans, activate Ras homolog A (RhoA) signaling, which leads to the collapse of the growth cone and inhibit axonal regeneration. By contrast, axonal regeneration programs can be activated by many molecules such as regeneration-associated transcription factors, cyclic AMP, neurotrophic factors, growth factors, mechanistic target of rapamycin or immune-related molecules. Axonal sprouting and axonal regeneration largely share these mechanisms. For functional recovery, appropriate pruning or suppressing of aberrant sprouting are also important. In contrast to adults, neonates show much higher sprouting ability. Specific cell types, various mouse strains and different species show higher regenerative ability. Studies focusing on these models also identified a lot of molecules that affect the regenerative ability. A deeper understanding of the mechanisms of neural circuit repair will lead to the development of better therapeutic approaches for central nervous system injury.

Chronic neuronal activation increases dynamic microtubules to enhance functional axon regeneration after dorsal root crush injury

After a dorsal root crush injury, centrally-projecting sensory axons fail to regenerate across the dorsal root entry zone (DREZ) to extend into the spinal cord. We find that chemogenetic activation of adult dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons improves axon growth on an in vitro model of the inhibitory environment after injury. Moreover, repeated bouts of daily chemogenetic activation of adult DRG neurons for 12 weeks post-crush in vivo enhances axon regeneration across a chondroitinase-digested DREZ into spinal gray matter, where the regenerating axons form functional synapses and mediate behavioral recovery in a sensorimotor task. Neuronal activation-mediated axon extension is dependent upon changes in the status of tubulin post-translational modifications indicative of highly dynamic microtubules (as opposed to stable microtubules) within the distal axon, illuminating a novel mechanism underlying stimulation-mediated axon growth. We have identified an effective combinatory strategy to promote functionally-relevant axon regeneration of adult neurons into the CNS after injury.

The Correlation of Semmes-Weinstein Monofilament Test with the Level of P-75 Neurotrophin as Marker of Nerve Damage in Leprosy

Introduction

Leprosy is a chronic infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium leprae that causes damage to the peripheral nerve, particularly Schwann cells. Treatment is useful only to kill bacteria but not to recover peripheral nerve damage. However, early detection of peripheral nerve damage is necessary. We examine P-75 neurotrophin (P75^NTR) as an indicator of peripheral nerve damage in leprosy with the Semmes–Weinstein monofilament (SWM) test as the comparison.

Methods

This study uses a quantitative analytic observational study approach with cross-sectional design, conducted at Kediri Leprosy Hospital, Malang, East Java, Indonesia. All leprosy patients had a clinical examination and bacterial index to classify leprosy and then the SWM test to examine the presence of neuropathy in the palms and feet. P75^NTR examination uses venous blood samples. An independent t-test was used to compare the SWM and P75^NTR scores based on the type of leprosy, and then the Spearman correlation test was used to determine the correlation between SWM scores and P75^NTR levels.

Results

In this study, SWM scores on the soles of the foot and palms and the P75^NTR levels were higher in the PB group compared with MB (p<0.05). Also, a significant positive correlation was found between P75^NTR and the SWM scores on the palms of the hand (r=0.864; p=0.000) and the soles of the foot (r=0.864; p=0.000).

Conclusion

There is a strong positive correlation between P75^NTR levels and SWM scores, so P75^NTR levels are very likely to be a marker of neuropathy in leprosy, but further studies are still needed to examine the specific role of these biomarkers.

Neuromuscular Activity Induces Paracrine Signaling and Triggers Axonal Regrowth after Injury in Microfluidic Lab-On-Chip Devices

Peripheral nerve injuries, including motor neuron axonal injury, often lead to functional impairments. Current therapies are mostly limited to surgical intervention after lesion, yet these interventions have limited success in restoring functionality. Current activity-based therapies after axonal injuries are based on trial-error approaches in which the details of the underlying cellular and molecular processes are largely unknown. Here we show the effects of the modulation of both neuronal and muscular activity with optogenetic approaches to assess the regenerative capacity of cultured motor neuron (MN) after lesion in a compartmentalized microfluidic-assisted axotomy device. With increased neuronal activity, we observed an increase in the ratio of regrowing axons after injury in our peripheral-injury model. Moreover, increasing muscular activity induces the liberation of leukemia inhibitory factor and glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor in a paracrine fashion that in turn triggers axonal regrowth of lesioned MN in our 3D hydrogel cultures. The relevance of our findings as well as the novel approaches used in this study could be useful not only after axotomy events but also in diseases affecting MN survival.

Heterogeneity in the regenerative abilities of central nervous system axons within species: why do some neurons regenerate better than others?

Some neurons, especially in mammalian peripheral nervous system or in lower vertebrate or in vertebrate central nervous system (CNS) regenerate after axotomy, while most mammalian CNS neurons fail to regenerate. There is an emerging consensus that neurons have different intrinsic regenerative capabilities, which theoretically could be manipulated therapeutically to improve regeneration. Population-based comparisons between “good regenerating” and “bad regenerating” neurons in the CNS and peripheral nervous system of most vertebrates yield results that are inconclusive or difficult to interpret. At least in part, this reflects the great diversity of cells in the mammalian CNS. Using mammalian nervous system imposes several methodical limitations. First, the small sizes and large numbers of neurons in the CNS make it very difficult to distinguish regenerating neurons from non-regenerating ones. Second, the lack of identifiable neurons makes it impossible to correlate biochemical changes in a neuron with axonal damage of the same neuron, and therefore, to dissect the molecular mechanisms of regeneration on the level of single neurons. This review will survey the reported responses to axon injury and the determinants of axon regeneration, emphasizing non-mammalian model organisms, which are often under-utilized, but in which the data are especially easy to interpret.

miR-22-3p enhances the intrinsic regenerative abilities of primary sensory neurons via the CBL/p-EGFR/p-STAT3/GAP43/p-GAP43 axis

Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a devastating disease. Strategies that enhance the intrinsic regenerative ability are very important for the recovery of SCI to radically prevent the occurrence of sensory disorders. Epidermal growth factor (EGF) showed a limited effect on the growth of primary sensory neuron neurites due to the degradation of phosphorylated-epidermal growth factor receptor (p-EGFR) in a manner dependent on Casitas B-lineage lymphoma (CBL) (an E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase). MiR-22-3p predicted from four databases could target CBL to inhibit the expression of CBL, increase p-EGFR levels and neurites length via STAT3/GAP43 pathway rather than Erk1/2 axis. EGF, EGFR, and miR-22-3p were downregulated sharply after injury. In vivo miR-22-3p Agomir application could regulate CBL/p-EGFR/p-STAT3/GAP43/p-GAP43 axis, and restore spinal cord sensory conductive function. This study clarified the mechanism of the limited promotion effect of EGF on adult primary sensory neuron neurite and targeting miR-22-3p could be a novel strategy to treat sensory dysfunction after SCI.

Functional Genome-wide Screen Identifies Pathways Restricting Central Nervous System Axonal Regeneration

Axonal regrowth is crucial for recovery from CNS injury but is severely restricted in adult mammals. We used a genome-wide loss-of-function screen for factors limiting axonal regeneration from cerebral cortical neurons in vitro. Knockdown of 16,007 individual genes identified 580 significant phenotypes. These molecules share no significant overlap with those suggested by previous expression profiles. There is enrichment for genes in pathways related to transport, receptor binding, and cytokine signaling, including Socs4 and Ship2. Among transport-regulating proteins, Rab GTPases are prominent. In vivo assessment with C. elegans validates a cell-autonomous restriction of regeneration by Rab27. Mice lacking Rab27b show enhanced retinal ganglion cell axon regeneration after optic nerve crush and greater motor function and raphespinal sprouting after spinal cord trauma. Thus, a comprehensive functional screen reveals multiple pathways restricting axonal regeneration and neurological recovery after injury.

Intrinsic mechanisms of neuronal axon regeneration

Permanent disabilities following CNS injuries result from the failure of injured axons to regenerate and rebuild functional connections with their original targets. By contrast, injury to peripheral nerves is followed by robust regeneration, which can lead to recovery of sensory and motor functions. This regenerative response requires the induction of widespread transcriptional and epigenetic changes in injured neurons. Considerable progress has been made in recent years in understanding how peripheral axon injury elicits these widespread changes through the coordinated actions of transcription factors, epigenetic modifiers and, to a lesser extent, microRNAs. Although many questions remain about the interplay between these mechanisms, these new findings provide important insights into the pivotal role of coordinated gene expression and chromatin remodelling in the neuronal response to injury.

The advances in nerve tissue engineering: From fabrication of nerve conduit to in vivo nerve regeneration assays

Peripheral nerve damage is a common clinical complication of traumatic injury occurring after accident, tumorous outgrowth, or surgical side effects. Although the new methods and biomaterials have been improved recently, regeneration of peripheral nerve gaps is still a challenge. These injuries affect the quality of life of the patients negatively. In the recent years, many efforts have been made to develop innovative nerve tissue engineering approaches aiming to improve peripheral nerve treatment following nerve injuries. Herein, we will not only outline what we know about the peripheral nerve regeneration but also offer our insight regarding the types of nerve conduits, their fabrication process, and factors associated with conduits as well as types of animal and nerve models for evaluating conduit function. Finally, nerve regeneration in a rat sciatic nerve injury model by nerve conduits has been considered, and the main aspects that may affect the preclinical outcome have been discussed.

miR-155-5p Promotes Dorsal Root Ganglion Neuron Axonal Growth in an Inhibitory Microenvironment via the cAMP/PKA Pathway

Sensory dysfunction post spinal cord injury causes patients great distress. Sciatic nerve conditioning injury (SNCI) has been shown to restore sensory function after spinal cord dorsal column injury (SDCL); however, the underlying mechanism of this recovery remains unclear. We performed a microarray assay to determine the associated miRNAs that might regulate the process of SNCI promoting SDCL repair. In total, 13 miRNAs were identified according to our inclusion criteria, and RT-qPCR was used to verify the microarray results. Among the 13 miRNAs, the miR-155-5p levels were decreased at 9 h, 3 d, 7 d, 14 d, 28 d, 2 m and 3 m timepoints in the SDCL group, while the SNCI group had a smaller decrease. Thus, miR-155-5p was chosen for further study after a literature review and an analysis with the TargetScan online tool. Specifically, miR-155-5p targets PKI-α, and the expression pattern of PKI-α was opposite that of miR-155-5p in both the SDCL and SNCI groups. Interestingly, miR-155-5p could promote dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neuron axon growth via the cAMP/PKA pathway and in a TNF-α, IL-1β or MAG inhibitory microenvironment in vitro. Furthermore, miR-155-5p could regulate the cAMP/PKA pathway and promote sensory conduction function recovery post dorsal column injury as detected by NF-200 immunohistochemistry, somatosensory-evoked potentials, BBB scale and tape removal test. Collectively, our results demonstrated that miR-155-5p participates in the molecular mechanism by which SNCI promotes the repair of SDCL and that upregulated miR-155-5p can repair SDCL by enhancing DRG neuron axon growth via the cAMP/PKA pathway. These findings suggest a novel treatment target for spinal cord injury.

Interleukin-6 contributes to initiation of neuronal regeneration program in the remote dorsal root ganglia neurons after sciatic nerve injury

To assess the potential role of IL-6 in sciatic nerve injury-induced activation of a pro-regenerative state in remote dorsal root ganglia (DRG) neurons, we compared protein levels of SCG-10 and activated STAT3, as well as axon regeneration in IL-6 knockout (IL-6ko) mice and their wild-type (WT) counterparts. Unilateral sciatic nerve compression and transection upregulated SCG-10 protein levels and activated STAT3 in DRG neurons not only in lumbar but also in cervical segments of WT mice. A pro-regenerative state induced by prior sciatic nerve lesion in cervical DRG neurons of WT mice was also shown by testing for axon regeneration in crushed ulnar nerve. DRG neurons from IL-6ko mice also displayed bilaterally increased levels of SCG-10 and STAT3 in both lumbar and cervical segments after sciatic nerve lesions. However, levels of SCG-10 protein in lumbar and cervical DRG of IL-6ko mice were significantly lower than those of their WT counterparts. Sciatic nerve injury induced a lower level of SCG-10 in cervical DRG of IL-6ko than WT mice, and this correlates with significantly shorter regeneration of axons distal to the crushed ulnar nerve. These results suggest that IL-6 contributes, at the very least, to initiation of the neuronal regeneration program in remote DRG neurons after unilateral sciatic nerve injury.

A Conditioning Sciatic Nerve Lesion Triggers a Pro-regenerative State in Primary Sensory Neurons Also of Dorsal Root Ganglia Non-associated With the Damaged Nerve

The primary sensory neurons of dorsal root ganglia (DRG) are a very useful model to study the neuronal regenerative program that is a prerequisite for successful axon regeneration after peripheral nerve injury. Seven days after a unilateral sciatic nerve injury by compression or transection, we detected a bilateral increase in growth-associated protein-43 (GAP-43) and superior cervical ganglion-10 (SCG-10) mRNA and protein levels not only in DRG neurons of lumbar spinal cord segments (L4-L5) associated with injured nerve, but also in remote cervical segments (C6-C8). The increase in regeneration-associated proteins in the cervical DRG neurons was associated with the greater length of regenerated axons 1 day after ulnar nerve crush following prior sciatic nerve injury as compared to controls with only ulnar nerve crush. The increased axonal regeneration capacity of cervical DRG neurons after a prior conditioning sciatic nerve lesion was confirmed by neurite outgrowth assay of in vitro cultivated DRG neurons. Intrathecal injection of IL-6 or a JAK2 inhibitor (AG490) revealed a role for the IL-6 signaling pathway in activating the pro-regenerative state in remote DRG neurons. Our results suggest that the pro-regenerative state induced in the DRG neurons non-associated with the injured nerve reflects a systemic reaction of these neurons to unilateral sciatic nerve injury.

Distinct relaxation timescales of neurites revealed by rate-dependent indentation, relaxation and micro-rheology tests

Although the dynamic response of neurites is believed to play crucial roles in processes like axon outgrowth and formation of the neural network, the dynamic mechanical properties of such protrusions remain poorly understood. In this study, by using AFM (atomic force microscopy) indentation, we systematically examined the dynamic behavior of well-developed neurites on primary neurons under different loading modes (step loading, oscillating loading and ramp loading). Interestingly, the response was found to be strongly rate-dependent, with an apparent initial and long-term elastic modulus around 800 and 80 Pa, respectively. To better analyze the measurement data and extract information of key interest, the finite element simulation method (FEM) was also conducted where the neurite was treated as a viscoelastic solid consisting of multiple characteristic relaxation times. It was found that a minimum of three relaxation timescales, i.e. ∼0.01, 0.1 and 1 seconds, are needed to explain the observed relaxation curve as well as fit simulation results to the indentation and rheology data under different loading rates and driving frequencies. We further demonstrated that these three characteristic relaxation times likely originate from the thermal fluctuations of the microtubule, membrane relaxation and cytosol viscosity, respectively. By identifying key parameters describing the time-dependent behavior of neurites, as well as revealing possible physical mechanisms behind, this study could greatly help us understand how neural cells perform their biological duties over a wide spectrum of timescales.

Targeting proteoglycan receptor PTPσ restores sensory function after spinal cord dorsal root injury by activation of Erks/CREB signaling pathway

Dorsal root injury commonly results in irreversible loss of sensory functions because of the limited intrinsic regenerative capacity of adult sensory axons and the growth-inhibitory environment at the dorsal root entry zone (DREZ) between the dorsal root and the spinal cord. Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans (CSPGs) are the dominant suppressors of axonal regeneration, acting via neuronal receptors including protein tyrosine phosphatase-σ (PTPσ). ISP (Intracellular Sigma Peptide) is a small peptide mimetic of the PTPσ wedge region that has been developed to target PTPσ and relieve CSPG inhibition. Extracellular regulated kinases (Erks) and cAMP response element binding protein (CREB) are signaling molecules downstream of CSPGs and PTPσ; they are expressed in neurons and essential for axon growth. In this study, we observed that ISP administration could promote sensory function restoration in adult rats after dorsal spinal root crush injury. Our results show that systemic ISP administration would not only significantly increase sensory axon regeneration and functional recovery, but also activate Erk and CREB signaling pathway. Furthermore, ISP has also been verified to increase dorsal root ganglion axonal remyelination in vitro. These results suggest that modulation of PTPσ by ISP represents a promising therapeutic strategy for sensory neuronal injuries.

Exosomes Derived From miR-133b-Modified Mesenchymal Stem Cells Promote Recovery After Spinal Cord Injury

Dysregulation of microRNAs (miRNAs) has been found in injured spinal cords after spinal cord injury (SCI). Previous studies have shown that miR-133b plays an important role in the differentiation of neurons and the outgrowth of neurites. Recently, exosomes have been used as novel biological vehicles to transfer miRNAs locally or systemically, but little is known about the effect of the delivery of exosome-mediated miRNAs on the treatment of SCI. In the present study, we observed that mesenchymal stem cells, the most common cell types known to produce exosomes, could package miR-133b into secreted exosomes. After SCI, tail vein injection of miR-133b exosomes into rats significantly improved the recovery of hindlimb function when compared to control groups. Additionally, treatment with miR-133b exosomes reduced the volume of the lesion, preserved neuronal cells, and promoted the regeneration of axons after SCI. We next observed that the expression of RhoA, a direct target of miR-133b, was decreased in the miR-133b exosome group. Moreover, we showed that miR-133b exosomes activated ERK1/2, STAT3, and CREB, which are signaling pathway proteins involved in the survival of neurons and the regeneration of axons. In summary, these findings demonstrated that systemically injecting miR-133b exosomes preserved neurons, promoted the regeneration of axons, and improved the recovery of hindlimb locomotor function following SCI, suggesting that the transfer of exosome-mediated miRNAs represents a novel therapeutic approach for the treatment of SCI.

MiR-20a Plays a Key Regulatory Role in the Repair of Spinal Cord Dorsal Column Lesion via PDZ-RhoGEF/RhoA/GAP43 Axis in Rat

Spinal cord injury (SCI) causes sensory dysfunctions such as paresthesia, dysesthesia, and chronic neuropathic pain. MiR-20a facilitates the axonal outgrowth of the cortical neurons. However, the role of miR-20a in the axonal outgrowth of primary sensory neurons and spinal cord dorsal column lesion (SDCL) is yet unknown. Therefore, the role of miR-20a post-SDCL was investigated in rat. The NF-200 immunofluorescence staining was applied to observe whether axonal outgrowth of dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons could be altered by miR-20a or PDZ-RhoGEF modulation in vitro. The expression of miR-20a was quantized with RT-PCR. Western blotting analyzed the expression of PDZ-RhoGEF/RhoA/GAP43 axis after miR-20a or PDZ-RhoGEF was modulated. The spinal cord sensory conduction function was assessed by somatosensory-evoked potentials and tape removal test. The results demonstrated that the expression of miR-20a decreased in a time-dependent manner post-SDCL. The regulation of miR-20a modulated the axonal growth and the expression of PDZ-RhoGEF/RhoA/GAP43 axis in vitro. The in vivo regulation of miR-20a altered the expression of miR-20a-PDZ-RhoGEF/RhoA/GAP43 axis and promoted the recovery of ascending sensory function post-SDCL. The results indicated that miR-20a/PDZ-RhoGEF/RhoA/GAP43 axis is associated with the pathophysiological process of SDCL. Thus, targeting the miR-20a/PDZ-RhoGEF /RhoA/GAP43 axis served as a novel strategy in promoting the sensory function recovery post-SCI.

HSP90 is a chaperone for DLK and is required for axon injury signaling

Peripheral nerve injury induces a robust proregenerative program that drives axon regeneration. While many regeneration-associated genes are known, the mechanisms by which injury activates them are less well-understood. To identify such mechanisms, we performed a loss-of-function pharmacological screen in cultured adult mouse sensory neurons for proteins required to activate this program. Well-characterized inhibitors were present as injury signaling was induced but were removed before axon outgrowth to identify molecules that block induction of the program. Of 480 compounds, 35 prevented injury-induced neurite regrowth. The top hits were inhibitors to heat shock protein 90 (HSP90), a chaperone with no known role in axon injury. HSP90 inhibition blocks injury-induced activation of the proregenerative transcription factor cJun and several regeneration-associated genes. These phenotypes mimic loss of the proregenerative kinase, dual leucine zipper kinase (DLK), a critical neuronal stress sensor that drives axon degeneration, axon regeneration, and cell death. HSP90 is an atypical chaperone that promotes the stability of signaling molecules. HSP90 and DLK show two hallmarks of HSP90-client relationships: (i) HSP90 binds DLK, and (ii) HSP90 inhibition leads to rapid degradation of existing DLK protein. Moreover, HSP90 is required for DLK stability in vivo, where HSP90 inhibitor reduces DLK protein in the sciatic nerve. This phenomenon is evolutionarily conserved in Drosophila Genetic knockdown of Drosophila HSP90, Hsp83, decreases levels of Drosophila DLK, Wallenda, and blocks Wallenda-dependent synaptic terminal overgrowth and injury signaling. Our findings support the hypothesis that HSP90 chaperones DLK and is required for DLK functions, including proregenerative axon injury signaling.

PEITC promotes neurite growth in primary sensory neurons via the miR-17-5p/STAT3/GAP-43 axis

The present study explored a key miRNA that plays a vital role in sciatic nerve conditioning injury promoting repair of injured dorsal column, and validated its function. Microarray analysis revealed miR-17-5p expression decreased sharply at 3, 7 and 14 days in the sciatic nerve conditioning injury group compared with the simple dorsal column lesion group. After miR-17-5p inhibition in DRG neurons, GAP-43 expression was upregulated and neurite growth was increased. STAT3 together with p-STAT3 showed opposite trends with miR-17-5p. MiR-17-5p inhibition extended neurite and upregulated STAT3, p-STAT3 and GAP-43. To further determine a substitution therapy for sciatic nerve conditioning injury, beta-phenethyl isothiocyanate (PEITC), which downregulates miR-17-5p, was assessed. The results showed that treatment with 10 µM PEITC resulted in longest neurite length. Further experiments demonstrated PEITC induced neurite growth by inhibiting miR-17-5p and further upregulating STAT3, p-STAT3 and GAP-43. The somatosensory evoked potential test confirmed similar treatment effects for PEITC, Ad-miRNA-17-5p inhibitor, and sciatic nerve conditioning injury on the dorsal column lesion. In conclusion, the miR-17-5p/STAT3/GAP-43 axis is an indispensable component of sciatic nerve conditioning injury promoting repair of injured dorsal column. PEITC could promote repair of injured dorsal column via the miR-17-5p/STAT3/GAP-43 axis, and could mimic the treatment effect of sciatic nerve conditioning injury.

Restoration of the nasopharyngeal response after bilateral sectioning of the anterior ethmoidal nerve in the rat

In response to stimulation of the nasal passages with volatile ammonia vapors, the nasopharyngeal reflex produces parasympathetically mediated bradycardia, sympathetically mediated increased peripheral vascular tone, and apnea. The anterior ethmoidal nerve (AEN), which innervates the anterior nasal mucosa, is thought to be primarily responsible for providing the sensory afferent signals that initiate these protective reflexes, as bilateral sectioning causes an attenuation of this response. However, recent evidence has shown cardiovascular responses to nasal stimulation with ammonia vapors are fully intact 9 days after bilateral AEN sectioning, and are similar to control animals without bilaterally sectioned AENs. To investigate this restoration of the nasopharyngeal response, we recorded the cardiorespiratory responses to nasal stimulation with ammonia vapors immediately after, and 3 and 9 days after, bilateral AEN sectioning. We also processed brainstem tissue for Fos to determine how the restoration of the nasopharyngeal response would affect the activity of neurons in the medullary dorsal horn (MDH), the part of the ventral spinal trigeminal nucleus caudalis region that receives primary afferent signals from the nose and nasal passages. We found 3 days after bilateral AEN sectioning the cardiorespiratory responses to nasal stimulation are partially restored. The bradycardic response to nasal stimulation is significantly more intense 3 days after AEN sectioning compared to Acute AEN sectioning. Surprisingly, 3 days after AEN sectioning the number of Fos-positive neurons within MDH decreased, even though the cardiorespiratory responses to nasal stimulation intensified. Collectively these findings indicate that, besides the AEN, there are alternate sensory pathways that can activate neurons within the trigeminal nucleus in response to nasal stimulation. The findings further suggest trigeminal neuronal plasticity involving these alternate sensory pathways occurs in as few as 3 days after bilateral AEN sectioning. Finally, activation of even a significantly reduced number of MDH neurons is sufficient to initiate the nasopharyngeal response.

Microfluidics of Small-Population Neurons Allows for a Precise Quantification of the Peripheral Axonal Growth State

Neurons are morphologically the most complex cell types and are characterized by a significant degree of axonal autonomy as well as having efficient means of communication between axons and neuronal cell bodies. For studying the response to axonal injury, compartmentalized microfluidic chambers (MFCs) have become the method of choice because they allow for the selective treatment of axons, independently of the soma, in a highly controllable and reproducible manner. A major disadvantage of these devices is the relatively large number of neurons needed for seeding, which makes them impractical to use with small-population neurons, such as sensory neurons of the mouse. Here, we describe a simple approach of seeding and culturing neurons in MFCs that allows for a dramatic reduction of neurons required to 10,000 neurons per device. This technique facilitates efficient experiments with small-population neurons in compartmentalized MFCs. We used this experimental setup to determine the intrinsic axonal growth state of adult mouse sensory neurons derived from dorsal root ganglia (DRG) and even trigeminal ganglia (TG). In combination with a newly developed linear Sholl analysis tool, we have examined the axonal growth responses of DRG and TG neurons to various cocktails of neurotrophins, glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF) and leptin. Precise quantification of axonal outgrowth revealed specific differences in the potency of each combination to promote axonal regeneration and to switch neurons into an intrinsic axonal growth state. This novel experimental setup opens the way to practicable microfluidic analyses of neurons that have previously been largely neglected simply due to insufficient numbers, including sensory neurons, sympathetic neurons and motor neurons.

The Dorsal Column Lesion Model of Spinal Cord Injury and Its Use in Deciphering the Neuron-Intrinsic Injury Response

The neuron‐intrinsic response to axonal injury differs markedly between neurons of the peripheral and central nervous system. Following a peripheral lesion, a robust axonal growth program is initiated, whereas neurons of the central nervous system do not mount an effective regenerative response. Increasing the neuron‐intrinsic regenerative response would therefore be one way to promote axonal regeneration in the injured central nervous system. The large‐diameter sensory neurons located in the dorsal root ganglia are pseudo‐unipolar neurons that project one axon branch into the spinal cord, and, via the dorsal column to the brain stem, and a peripheral process to the muscles and skin. Dorsal root ganglion neurons are ideally suited to study the neuron‐intrinsic injury response because they exhibit a successful growth response following peripheral axotomy, while they fail to do so after a lesion of the central branch in the dorsal column. The dorsal column injury model allows the neuron‐intrinsic regeneration response to be studied in the context of a spinal cord injury. Here we will discuss the advantages and disadvantages of this model. We describe the surgical methods used to implement a lesion of the ascending fibers, the anatomy of the sensory afferent pathways and anatomical, electrophysiological, and behavioral techniques to quantify regeneration and functional recovery. Subsequently we review the results of experimental interventions in the dorsal column lesion model, with an emphasis on the molecular mechanisms that govern the neuron‐intrinsic injury response and manipulations of these after central axotomy. Finally, we highlight a number of recent advances that will have an impact on the design of future studies in this spinal cord injury model, including the continued development of adeno‐associated viral vectors likely to improve the genetic manipulation of dorsal root ganglion neurons and the use of tissue clearing techniques enabling 3D reconstruction of regenerating axon tracts. © 2018 The Authors. Developmental Neurobiology Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Develop Neurobiol 00: 000–000, 2018

Microtubules and axon regeneration in C. elegans

Axon regeneration is a fundamental and conserved process that allows the nervous system to repair circuits after trauma. Due to its conserved genome, transparent body, and relatively simple neuroanatomy, C. elegans has become a powerful model organism for studying the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying axon regeneration. Various studies from different model organisms have found microtubule dynamics to be pivotal to axon regrowth. In this review, we will discuss the latest findings on how microtubule dynamics are regulated during axon regeneration in C. elegans. Understanding the mechanisms of axon regeneration will aid in the development of more effective therapeutic strategies for treatments of diseases involving disconnection of axons, such as spinal cord injury and stroke.