1
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Bahari F, Dzhala V, Balena T, Lillis KP, Staley KJ. Intraventricular haemorrhage in premature infants: the role of immature neuronal salt and water transport. Brain 2024; 147:3216-3233. [PMID: 38815055 PMCID: PMC11370806 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awae161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2023] [Revised: 04/25/2024] [Accepted: 04/28/2024] [Indexed: 06/01/2024] Open
Abstract
Intraventricular haemorrhage is a common complication of premature birth. Survivors are often left with cerebral palsy, intellectual disability and/or hydrocephalus. Animal models suggest that brain tissue shrinkage, with subsequent vascular stretch and tear, is an important step in the pathophysiology, but the cause of this shrinkage is unknown. Clinical risk factors for intraventricular haemorrhage are biomarkers of hypoxic-ischaemic stress, which causes mature neurons to swell. However, immature neuronal volume might shift in the opposite direction in these conditions. This is because immature neurons express the chloride, salt and water transporter NKCC1, which subserves regulatory volume increases in non-neural cells, whereas mature neurons express KCC2, which subserves regulatory volume decreases. When hypoxic-ischaemic conditions reduce active ion transport and increase the cytoplasmic membrane permeability, the effects of these transporters are diminished. Consequentially, mature neurons swell (cytotoxic oedema), whereas immature neurons might shrink. After hypoxic-ischaemic stress, in vivo and in vitro multi-photon imaging of perinatal transgenic mice demonstrated shrinkage of viable immature neurons, bulk tissue shrinkage and blood vessel displacement. Neuronal shrinkage was correlated with age-dependent membrane salt and water transporter expression using immunohistochemistry. Shrinkage of immature neurons was prevented by prior genetic or pharmacological inhibition of NKCC1 transport. These findings open new avenues of investigation for the detection of acute brain injury by neuroimaging, in addition to prevention of neuronal shrinkage and the ensuing intraventricular haemorrhage, in premature infants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatemeh Bahari
- Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Volodymyr Dzhala
- Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Trevor Balena
- Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Kyle P Lillis
- Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Kevin J Staley
- Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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2
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Schofield C, Sarrigiannidis S, Moran-Horowich A, Jackson E, Rodrigo-Navarro A, van Agtmael T, Cantini M, Dalby MJ, Salmeron-Sanchez M. An In Vitro Model of the Blood-Brain Barrier for the Investigation and Isolation of the Key Drivers of Barriergenesis. Adv Healthc Mater 2024:e2303777. [PMID: 39101628 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.202303777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2023] [Revised: 07/24/2024] [Indexed: 08/06/2024]
Abstract
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) tightly regulates substance transport between the bloodstream and the brain. Models for the study of the physiological processes affecting the BBB, as well as predicting the permeability of therapeutic substances for neurological and neurovascular pathologies, are highly desirable. Existing models, such as Transwell utilizing-models, do not mimic the extracellular environment of the BBB with their stiff, semipermeable, non-biodegradable membranes. To help overcome this, we engineered electrospun membranes from poly L-lactic acid in combination with a nanometric coating of poly(ethyl acrylate) (PEA) that drives fibrillogenesis of fibronectin, facilitating the synergistic presentation of both growth factors and integrin binding sites. Compared to commercial semi-porous membranes, these membranes significantly improve the expression of BBB-related proteins in brain endothelial cells. PEA-coated membranes in combination with different growth factors and extracellular protein coatings reveal nerve growth factor (NGF) and fibroblast growth factor (FGF-2) caused formation of better barriers in vitro. This BBB model offers a robust platform for studying key biochemical factors influencing barrier formation that marries the simplicity of the Transwell model with the highly tunable electrospun PEA-fibronectin membranes. This enables the generation of high-throughput drug permeability models without the need of complicated co-culture conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina Schofield
- Centre for the Cellular Microenvironment, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G11 6EW, UK
| | | | | | - Emma Jackson
- Centre for the Cellular Microenvironment, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G11 6EW, UK
| | | | - Tom van Agtmael
- School of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Health, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA, UK
| | - Marco Cantini
- Centre for the Cellular Microenvironment, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G11 6EW, UK
| | - Matthew J Dalby
- Centre for the Cellular Microenvironment, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G11 6EW, UK
| | - Manuel Salmeron-Sanchez
- Centre for the Cellular Microenvironment, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G11 6EW, UK
- Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), The Barcelona Institute for Science and Technology (BIST), Barcelona, 08028, Spain
- Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats (ICREA), Barcelona, Spain
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3
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Chakrabarty A, Newey SE, Promi MM, Agbetiameh BK, Munro D, Brodersen PJN, Gothard G, Mahfooz K, Mengual JP, Vyazovskiy VV, Akerman CJ. sUPRa is a dual-color reporter for unbiased quantification of the unfolded protein response with cellular resolution. Sci Rep 2024; 14:14990. [PMID: 38951511 PMCID: PMC11217371 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-65611-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2024] [Accepted: 06/21/2024] [Indexed: 07/03/2024] Open
Abstract
The unfolded protein response (UPR) maintains proteostasis upon endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, and is initiated by a range of physiological and pathological processes. While there have been advances in developing fluorescent reporters for monitoring individual signaling pathways of the UPR, this approach may not capture a cell's overall UPR activity. Here we describe a novel sensor of UPR activity, sUPRa, which is designed to report the global UPR. sUPRa displays excellent response characteristics, outperforms reporters of individual UPR pathways in terms of sensitivity and kinetics, and responds to a range of different ER stress stimuli. Furthermore, sUPRa's dual promoter and fluorescent protein design ensures that both UPR-active and inactive cells are detected, and controls for reporter copy number. Using sUPRa, we reveal UPR activation in layer 2/3 pyramidal neurons of mouse cerebral cortex following a period of sleep deprivation. sUPRa affords new opportunities for quantifying physiological UPR activity with cellular resolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atreyi Chakrabarty
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Oxford, University of Oxford, Mansfield Road, Oxford, OX1 3QT, UK
| | - Sarah E Newey
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Oxford, University of Oxford, Mansfield Road, Oxford, OX1 3QT, UK
| | - Maisha M Promi
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Oxford, University of Oxford, Mansfield Road, Oxford, OX1 3QT, UK
| | - Belinda K Agbetiameh
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Oxford, University of Oxford, Mansfield Road, Oxford, OX1 3QT, UK
| | - Daniella Munro
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Oxford, University of Oxford, Mansfield Road, Oxford, OX1 3QT, UK
| | - Paul J N Brodersen
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Oxford, University of Oxford, Mansfield Road, Oxford, OX1 3QT, UK
| | - Gemma Gothard
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Oxford, University of Oxford, Mansfield Road, Oxford, OX1 3QT, UK
| | - Kashif Mahfooz
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Oxford, University of Oxford, Mansfield Road, Oxford, OX1 3QT, UK
| | - Jose P Mengual
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Sherrington Building, Sherrington Road, Oxford, OX1 3PT, UK
| | - Vladyslav V Vyazovskiy
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Sherrington Building, Sherrington Road, Oxford, OX1 3PT, UK
| | - Colin J Akerman
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Oxford, University of Oxford, Mansfield Road, Oxford, OX1 3QT, UK.
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4
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Gettings SM, Timbury W, Dmochowska A, Sharma R, McGonigle R, MacKenzie LE, Miquelard-Garnier G, Bourbia N. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) micro- and nanoplastic particles affect the mitochondrial efficiency of human brain vascular pericytes without inducing oxidative stress. NANOIMPACT 2024; 34:100508. [PMID: 38663501 DOI: 10.1016/j.impact.2024.100508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2023] [Revised: 04/19/2024] [Accepted: 04/22/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024]
Abstract
The objective of this investigation was to evaluate the influence of micro- and nanoplastic particles composed of polyethylene terephthalate (PET), a significant contributor to plastic pollution, on human brain vascular pericytes. Specifically, we delved into their impact on mitochondrial functionality, oxidative stress, and the expression of genes associated with oxidative stress, ferroptosis and mitochondrial functions. Our findings demonstrate that the exposure of a monoculture of human brain vascular pericytes to PET particles in vitro at a concentration of 50 μg/ml for a duration of 3, 6 and 10 days did not elicit oxidative stress. Notably, we observed a reduction in various aspects of mitochondrial respiration, including maximal respiration, spare respiratory capacity, and ATP production in pericytes subjected to PET particles for 3 days, with a mitochondrial function recovery at 6 and 10 days. Furthermore, there were no statistically significant alterations in mitochondrial DNA copy number, or in the expression of genes linked to oxidative stress and ferroptosis, but an increase of the expression of the gene mitochondrial transcription factor A (TFAM) was noted at 3 days exposure. These outcomes suggest that, at a concentration of 50 μg/ml, PET particles do not induce oxidative stress in human brain vascular pericytes. Instead, at 3 days exposure, PET exposure impairs mitochondrial functions, but this is recovered at 6-day exposure. This seems to indicate a potential mitochondrial hormesis response (mitohormesis) is incited, involving the gene TFAM. Further investigations are warranted to explore the stages of mitohormesis and the potential consequences of plastics on the integrity of the blood-brain barrier and intercellular interactions. This research contributes to our comprehension of the potential repercussions of nanoplastic pollution on human health and underscores the imperative need for ongoing examinations into the exposure to plastic particles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean M Gettings
- UK Health Security Agency, Radiation Effects Department, Radiation Protection Science Division, Harwell Science Campus, Didcot, Oxfordshire OX11 0RQ, UK
| | - William Timbury
- UK Health Security Agency, Radiation Effects Department, Radiation Protection Science Division, Harwell Science Campus, Didcot, Oxfordshire OX11 0RQ, UK
| | - Anna Dmochowska
- Laboratoire PIMM, CNRS, Arts et Métiers Institute of Technology, Cnam, HESAM Universite, 75013 Paris, France
| | - Riddhi Sharma
- UK Health Security Agency, Radiation Effects Department, Radiation Protection Science Division, Harwell Science Campus, Didcot, Oxfordshire OX11 0RQ, UK
| | - Rebecca McGonigle
- Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow G1 1RD, UK
| | - Lewis E MacKenzie
- Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow G1 1RD, UK
| | - Guillaume Miquelard-Garnier
- Laboratoire PIMM, CNRS, Arts et Métiers Institute of Technology, Cnam, HESAM Universite, 75013 Paris, France
| | - Nora Bourbia
- UK Health Security Agency, Radiation Effects Department, Radiation Protection Science Division, Harwell Science Campus, Didcot, Oxfordshire OX11 0RQ, UK.
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5
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Steiner K, Humpel C. Beta-Amyloid Enhances Vessel Formation in Organotypic Brain Slices Connected to Microcontact Prints. Biomolecules 2023; 14:3. [PMID: 38275744 PMCID: PMC10812928 DOI: 10.3390/biom14010003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2023] [Revised: 11/24/2023] [Accepted: 12/13/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2024] Open
Abstract
In Alzheimer's disease, the blood-brain barrier breakdown, blood vessel damage and re-organization are early events. Deposits of the small toxic peptide beta-amyloid (Aβ) cause the formation of extracellular plaques and accumulate in vessels disrupting the blood flow but may also play a role in blood clotting. In the present study, we aim to explore the impact of Aβ on the migration of endothelial cells and subsequent vessel formation. We use organotypic brain slices of postnatal day 10 wildtype mice (C57BL/6) and connect them to small microcontact prints (µCPs) of collagen. Our data show that laminin-positive endothelial cells migrate onto collagen µCPs, but without any vessel formation after 4 weeks. When the µCPs are loaded with human Aβ40, (aggregated) human Aβ42 and mouse Aβ42 peptides, the number and migration distance of endothelial cells are significantly reduced, but with a more pronounced subsequent vessel formation. The vessel formation is verified by zonula occludens (ZO)-1 and -2 stainings and confocal microscopy. In addition, the vessel formation is accompanied by a stronger GFAP-positive astroglial formation. Finally, we show that vessels can grow towards convergence when two opposed slices are connected via microcontact-printed lanes. In conclusion, our data show that Aβ promotes vessel formation, and organotypic brain slices connected to collagen µCPs provide a potent tool to study vessel formation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Christian Humpel
- Laboratory of Psychiatry and Experimental Alzheimer’s Research, Medical University of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria;
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6
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Steinruecke M, Lonergan RM, Selvaraj BT, Chandran S, Diaz-Castro B, Stavrou M. Blood-CNS barrier dysfunction in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: Proposed mechanisms and clinical implications. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2023; 43:642-654. [PMID: 36704819 PMCID: PMC10108188 DOI: 10.1177/0271678x231153281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
There is strong evidence for blood-brain and blood-spinal cord barrier dysfunction at the early stages of many neurodegenerative diseases, including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Since impairment of the blood-central nervous system barrier (BCNSB) occurs during the pre-symptomatic stages of ALS, the mechanisms underlying this pathology are likely also involved in the ALS disease process. In this review, we explore how drivers of ALS disease, particularly mitochondrial dysfunction, astrocyte pathology and neuroinflammation, may contribute to BCNSB impairment. Mitochondria are highly abundant in BCNSB tissue and mitochondrial dysfunction in ALS contributes to motor neuron death. Likewise, astrocytes adopt key physical, transport and metabolic functions at the barrier, many of which are impaired in ALS. Astrocytes also show raised expression of inflammatory markers in ALS and ablating ALS-causing transgenes in astrocytes slows disease progression. In addition, key drivers of neuroinflammation, including TAR DNA-binding protein 43 (TDP-43) pathology, matrix metalloproteinase activation and systemic inflammation, affect BCNSB integrity in ALS. Finally, we discuss the translational implications of BCNSB dysfunction in ALS, including the development of biomarkers for disease onset and progression, approaches aimed at restoring BCNSB integrity and in vitro modelling of the neurogliovascular system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moritz Steinruecke
- Edinburgh Medical School, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK.,University of Cambridge School of Clinical Medicine, Cambridge, UK
| | | | - Bhuvaneish T Selvaraj
- Euan MacDonald Centre for MND Research, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK.,Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK.,Dementia Research Institute at The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Siddharthan Chandran
- Euan MacDonald Centre for MND Research, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK.,Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK.,Dementia Research Institute at The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Blanca Diaz-Castro
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK.,Dementia Research Institute at The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Maria Stavrou
- Euan MacDonald Centre for MND Research, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK.,Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK.,Dementia Research Institute at The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
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7
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Deng J, Zhang X, Yin M, Cao W, Zhang B, Liu Q, Hou X, Wang H, Shi C. Modified CFBP-bFGF targeting to ischemic brain promoted the functional recovery of cerebral ischemia. J Control Release 2023; 353:462-474. [PMID: 36493946 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2022.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2022] [Revised: 11/11/2022] [Accepted: 12/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The cerebral ischemia was one of the most common causes of disability and death worldwide. Basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) was reported to have neuroprotective function as well as promoting angiogenesis in the ischemic brain, but the targeting delivery of bFGF to ischemic brain was still difficult. In present study, a specific peptide was used to modify bFGF to construct recombinant CFBP-bFGF, and CFBP-bFGF could specifically deliver to ischemic brain through binding with the upregulated protein-connective tissue growth factor (CTGF). When CFBP-bFGF was used in rats with cerebral ischemia by intravenous injection, local concentration of the bFGF in ischemic brain was significantly increased. In addition, enhanced neurons survival, increased angiogenesis, decreased neuroinflammation were observed, that improved the motor functional recovery of cerebral ischemic injury. These results demonstrated that the targeting delivery of CFBP-bFGF would be a potential therapeutic approach for cerebral ischemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin Deng
- Department of Human Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, School of Basic Medicine, Qingdao University, Qingdao 266071, China; Department of Neurology, The Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, 16 Jiangsu Road, Qingdao 266000, Shandong, China
| | - Xiaojing Zhang
- Department of Human Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, School of Basic Medicine, Qingdao University, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Mengmeng Yin
- The Second Department of Neurology, Qingdao Central Hospital, 127 South Siliu Road, Qingdao 266042, Shandong, China
| | - Wenxuan Cao
- Department of Human Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, School of Basic Medicine, Qingdao University, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Bing Zhang
- Department of Neurology, The Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, 16 Jiangsu Road, Qingdao 266000, Shandong, China
| | - Qi Liu
- Department of Human Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, School of Basic Medicine, Qingdao University, Qingdao 266071, China; Department of Neurology, The Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, 16 Jiangsu Road, Qingdao 266000, Shandong, China
| | - Xianglin Hou
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Developmental Biology, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, China..
| | - Haiping Wang
- Department of Neurology, The Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, 16 Jiangsu Road, Qingdao 266000, Shandong, China.
| | - Chunying Shi
- Department of Human Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, School of Basic Medicine, Qingdao University, Qingdao 266071, China.
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8
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Puebla M, Tapia PJ, Espinoza H. Key Role of Astrocytes in Postnatal Brain and Retinal Angiogenesis. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23052646. [PMID: 35269788 PMCID: PMC8910249 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23052646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2022] [Revised: 02/21/2022] [Accepted: 02/23/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Angiogenesis is a key process in various physiological and pathological conditions in the nervous system and in the retina during postnatal life. Although an increasing number of studies have addressed the role of endothelial cells in this event, the astrocytes contribution in angiogenesis has received less attention. This review is focused on the role of astrocytes as a scaffold and in the stabilization of the new blood vessels, through different molecules release, which can modulate the angiogenesis process in the brain and in the retina. Further, differences in the astrocytes phenotype are addressed in glioblastoma, one of the most devastating types of brain cancer, in order to provide potential targets involved in the cross signaling between endothelial cells, astrocytes and glioma cells, that mediate tumor progression and pathological angiogenesis. Given the relevance of astrocytes in angiogenesis in physiological and pathological conditions, future studies are required to better understand the interrelation between endothelial and astrocyte signaling pathways during this process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariela Puebla
- Centro de Fisiología Celular e Integrativa, Facultad de Medicina-Clínica Alemana, Universidad del Desarrollo, Av. Plaza 680, Las Condes, Santiago 7550000, Chile;
| | - Pablo J. Tapia
- Centro de Biología Celular y Biomedicina (CEBICEM), Facultad de Medicina y Ciencia, Universidad San Sebastián, Av. Lota 2465, Providencia, Santiago 7500000, Chile;
- Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Agronomía, Universidad de las Américas, Av. República 71, Santiago 8320000, Chile
| | - Hilda Espinoza
- Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad del Alba, Av. Ejército Libertador 171, Santiago 8320000, Chile
- Correspondence:
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9
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Sasaki S, Negishi T, Tsuzuki T, Yukawa K. Diphenylarsinic acid induced activation of MAP kinases, transcription factors, and oxidative stress-responsive factors and hypersecretion of cytokines in cultured normal human cerebellar astrocytes. Neurotoxicology 2021; 88:196-207. [PMID: 34883095 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2021.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2021] [Revised: 09/24/2021] [Accepted: 12/02/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Diphenylarsinic acid (DPAA) is a non-natural pentavalent organic arsenic and was detected in well water in Kamisu, Ibaraki, Japan in 2003. Individuals that had consumed this arsenic-contaminated water developed cerebellar symptoms such as myoclonus. We previously revealed that DPAA exposure in rats in vitro and in vivo specifically affected astrocytes rather than neurons among cerebellar cells. Here, we evaluated adverse effects of DPAA in cultured normal human cerebellar astrocytes (NHA), which were compared with those in normal rat cerebellar astrocytes (NRA) exposed to DPAA at 10 μM for 96 h, focusing on aberrant activation of astrocytes; increase in cell viability, activation of MAP kinases (ERK1/2, p38MAPK, and SAPK/JNK) and transcription factors (CREB, c-Jun, and c-Fos), upregulation of oxidative stress-responsive factors (Nrf2, HO-1, and Hsp70), and also hypersecretion of brain cytokines (MCP-1, adrenomedullin, FGF-2, CXCL1, and IL-6) as reported in NRA. While DPAA exposure at 10 μM for 96 h had little effect on NHA, a higher concentration (50 μM for 96 h) and longer exposure (10 μM for 288 h) induced similar aberrant activation. Moreover, exposure to DPAA at 50 μM for 96 h or 10 μM for 288 h in NHA induced hypersecretion of cytokines induced in DPAA-exposed NRA (MCP-1, adrenomedullin, FGF-2, CXCL1, and IL-6), and IL-8 besides into culture medium. These results suggested that aberrantly activated human astrocytes by DPAA exposure might play a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of cerebellar symptoms, affecting adjacent neurons, microglia, brain blood vessels, or astrocyte itself through these brain cytokines in human.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shoto Sasaki
- Department of Physiology, Graduate School of Pharmacy, Meijo University, 150 Yagotoyama, Tempaku-ku, Nagoya-shi, Aichi, 468-8503, Japan
| | - Takayuki Negishi
- Department of Physiology, Graduate School of Pharmacy, Meijo University, 150 Yagotoyama, Tempaku-ku, Nagoya-shi, Aichi, 468-8503, Japan; Department of Physiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Meijo University, 150 Yagotoyama, Tempaku-ku, Nagoya-shi, Aichi, 468-8503, Japan.
| | - Takamasa Tsuzuki
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Meijo University, 150 Yagotoyama, Tempaku-ku, Nagoya-shi, Aichi, 468-8503, Japan
| | - Kazunori Yukawa
- Department of Physiology, Graduate School of Pharmacy, Meijo University, 150 Yagotoyama, Tempaku-ku, Nagoya-shi, Aichi, 468-8503, Japan; Department of Physiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Meijo University, 150 Yagotoyama, Tempaku-ku, Nagoya-shi, Aichi, 468-8503, Japan
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10
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Preparation and Culture of Organotypic Hippocampal Slices for the Analysis of Brain Metastasis and Primary Brain Tumor Growth. Methods Mol Biol 2021. [PMID: 33742394 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-1350-4_5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/02/2023]
Abstract
Brain metastasis is a major challenge for therapy and defines the end stage of tumor progression with a very limited patients' prognosis. Experimental setups that faithfully mimic these processes are necessary to understand the mechanism of brain metastasis and to develop new improved therapeutic strategies. Here, we describe an in vitro model, which closely resembles the in vivo situation. Organotypic hippocampal brain slice cultures (OHSCs) prepared from 3- to 8-day-old mice are well suited for neuro-oncology research including brain metastasis. The original morphology is preserved in OHSCs even after culture periods of several days to weeks. Tumor cells or cells of metastatic origin can be seeded onto OHSCs to evaluate micro-tumor formation, tumor cell invasion, or treatment response. We describe preparation and culture of OHSCs including the seeding of tumor cells. Finally, we show examples of how to treat the OHSCs for life-dead or immunohistochemical staining.
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11
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Schofield CL, Rodrigo-Navarro A, Dalby MJ, Van Agtmael T, Salmeron-Sanchez M. Biochemical‐ and Biophysical‐Induced Barriergenesis in the Blood–Brain Barrier: A Review of Barriergenic Factors for Use in In Vitro Models. ADVANCED NANOBIOMED RESEARCH 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/anbr.202000068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Matthew J. Dalby
- Centre for the Cellular Microenvironment University of Glasgow Glasgow UK
| | - Tom Van Agtmael
- Institute of Cardiovascular and Medical Sciences University of Glasgow Glasgow UK
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12
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Ucar B, Yusufogullari S, Humpel C. Collagen hydrogels loaded with fibroblast growth factor-2 as a bridge to repair brain vessels in organotypic brain slices. Exp Brain Res 2020; 238:2521-2529. [PMID: 32862235 PMCID: PMC7541361 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-020-05907-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2020] [Accepted: 08/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Vessel damage is a general pathological process in many neurodegenerative disorders, as well as spinal cord injury, stroke, or trauma. Biomaterials can present novel tools to repair and regenerate damaged vessels. The aim of the present study is to test collagen hydrogels loaded with different angiogenic factors to study vessel repair in organotypic brain slice cultures. In the experimental set up I, we made a cut on the organotypic brain slice and tested re-growth of laminin + vessels. In the experimental set up II, we cultured two half brain slices with a gap with a collagen hydrogel placed in between to study endothelial cell migration. In the experimental set up I, we showed that the number of vessels crossing the cut was tendencially increased with the addition of fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF-2), vascular endothelial growth factor, or platelet-derived growth factor-BB compared to the control group. In the experimental set up II, we demonstrated that a collagen hydrogel loaded with FGF-2 resulted in a significantly increased number of migrated laminin + cells in the gap between the slices compared to the control hydrogel. Co-administration of several growth factors did not further potentiate the effects. Taken together, we show that organotypic brain slices are good models to study brain vessels and FGF-2 is a potent angiogenic factor for endothelial cell proliferation and migration. Our results provide evidence that the collagen hydrogels can be used as an extracellular matrix for the vascular endothelial cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Buket Ucar
- Laboratory of Psychiatry and Experimental Alzheimer's Research, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical University of Innsbruck, Anichstrasse 35, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Sedef Yusufogullari
- Laboratory of Psychiatry and Experimental Alzheimer's Research, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical University of Innsbruck, Anichstrasse 35, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria
- Biomedical Institute, Gebze Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Christian Humpel
- Laboratory of Psychiatry and Experimental Alzheimer's Research, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical University of Innsbruck, Anichstrasse 35, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria.
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13
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Stubbs EB. Targeting the blood-nerve barrier for the management of immune-mediated peripheral neuropathies. Exp Neurol 2020; 331:113385. [PMID: 32562668 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2020.113385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2020] [Revised: 06/03/2020] [Accepted: 06/15/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Healthy peripheral nerves encounter, with increased frequency, numerous chemical, biological, and biomechanical forces. Over time and with increasing age, these forces collectively contribute to the pathophysiology of a spectrum of traumatic, metabolic, and/or immune-mediated peripheral nerve disorders. The blood-nerve barrier (BNB) serves as a critical first-line defense against chemical and biologic insults while biomechanical forces are continuously buffered by a dense array of longitudinally orientated epineural collagen fibers exhibiting high-tensile strength. As emphasized throughout this Experimental Neurology Special Issue, the BNB is best characterized as a functionally dynamic multicellular vascular unit comprised of not only highly specialized endoneurial endothelial cells, but also associated perineurial cells, pericytes, Schwann cells, basement membrane, and invested axons. The composition of the BNB, while anatomically distinct, is not functionally dissimilar to that of the well characterized neurovascular unit of the central nervous system. While the BNB lacks a glial limitans and an astrocytic endfoot layer, the primary function of both vascular units is to establish, maintain, and protect an optimal endoneurial (PNS) or interstitial (CNS) fluid microenvironment that is vital for proper neuronal function. Altered endoneurial homeostasis as a secondary consequence of BNB dysregulation is considered an early pathological event in the course of a variety of traumatic, immune-mediated, or metabolically acquired peripheral neuropathies. In this review, emerging experimental advancements targeting the endoneurial microvasculature for the therapeutic management of immune-mediated inflammatory peripheral neuropathies, including the AIDP variant of Guillain-Barré syndrome, are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evan B Stubbs
- Research Service (151), Department of Veterans Affairs, Edward Hines Jr. VA Hospital, Hines, IL 60141, USA; Department of Ophthalmology, Loyola University Health Science Division, Maywood, IL 60153, USA.
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Chen P, Tang H, Zhang Q, Xu L, Zhou W, Hu X, Deng Y, Zhang L. Basic Fibroblast Growth Factor (bFGF) Protects the Blood-Brain Barrier by Binding of FGFR1 and Activating the ERK Signaling Pathway After Intra-Abdominal Hypertension and Traumatic Brain Injury. Med Sci Monit 2020; 26:e922009. [PMID: 32036381 PMCID: PMC7029819 DOI: 10.12659/msm.922009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Intra-abdominal hypertension (IAH) is associated with high morbidity and mortality. IAH leads to intra-abdominal tissue damage and causes dysfunction in distal organs such as the brain. The effect of a combined injury due to IAH and traumatic brain injury (TBI) on the integrity of the blood–brain barrier (BBB) has not been investigated. Material/Methods Intracranial pressure (ICP) monitoring, brain water content, EB permeability detection, immunofluorescence staining, real-time PCR, and Western blot analysis were used to examine the effects of IAH and TBI on the BBB in rats, and to characterize the protective effects of basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) on combined injury-induced BBB damage. Results Combined injury from IAH and TBI to the BBB resulted in brain edema and increased intracranial pressure. The effects of bFGF on alleviating the rat BBB injuries were determined, indicating that bFGF regulated the expression levels of the tight junction (TJ), adhesion junction (AJ), matrix metalloproteinase (MMP), and IL-1β, as well as reduced BBB permeability, brain edema, and intracranial pressure. Moreover, the FGFR1 antagonist PD 173074 and the ERK antagonist PD 98059 decreased the protective effects of bFGF. Conclusions bFGF effectively protected the BBB from damage caused by combined injury from IAH and TBI, and binding of FGFR1 and activation of the ERK signaling pathway was involved in these effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Trauma, Burns and Combined Injury, Trauma Center of People's Liberation Army (PLA), Daping Hospital, Army Medical University, Chongqing, China (mainland).,Department of Neurosurgery, Chongqing Emergency Medical Center, Chongqing, China (mainland)
| | - Hao Tang
- State Key Laboratory of Trauma, Burns and Combined Injury, Trauma Center of People's Liberation Army (PLA), Daping Hospital, Army Medical University, Chongqing, China (mainland)
| | - Qingtao Zhang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Chongqing Emergency Medical Center, Chongqing, China (mainland)
| | - Lei Xu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Chongqing Emergency Medical Center, Chongqing, China (mainland)
| | - Wei Zhou
- Department of Neurosurgery, Chongqing Emergency Medical Center, Chongqing, China (mainland)
| | - Xi Hu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Chongqing Emergency Medical Center, Chongqing, China (mainland)
| | - Yongbing Deng
- Department of Neurosurgery, Chongqing Emergency Medical Center, Chongqing, China (mainland)
| | - Lianyang Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Trauma, Burns and Combined Injury, Trauma Center of People's Liberation Army (PLA), Daping Hospital, Army Medical University, Chongqing, China (mainland)
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15
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Hayakawa K, Chan SJ, Mandeville ET, Park JH, Bruzzese M, Montaner J, Arai K, Rosell A, Lo EH. Protective Effects of Endothelial Progenitor Cell-Derived Extracellular Mitochondria in Brain Endothelium. Stem Cells 2018; 36:1404-1410. [PMID: 29781122 DOI: 10.1002/stem.2856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2018] [Revised: 04/10/2018] [Accepted: 05/01/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs) have been pursued as a potential cellular therapy for stroke and central nervous system injury. However, their underlying mechanisms remain to be fully defined. Recent experimental studies suggest that mitochondria may be released and transferred between cells. In this proof-of-concept study, we asked whether beneficial effects of EPCs may partly involve a mitochondrial phenomenon as well. First, EPC-derived conditioned medium was collected and divided into supernatant and particle fractions after centrifugation. Electron microscopy, Western blots, and flow cytometry showed that EPCs were able to release mitochondria. ATP and oxygen consumption assays suggested that these extracellular mitochondria may still be functionally viable. Confocal microscopy confirmed that EPC-derived extracellular mitochondria can be incorporated into normal brain endothelial cells. Adding EPC particles to brain endothelial cells promoted angiogenesis and decreased the permeability of brain endothelial cells. Next, we asked whether EPC-derived mitochondria may be protective. As expected, oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) increased brain endothelial permeability. Adding EPC-derived mitochondria particles to the damaged brain endothelium increased levels of mitochondrial protein TOM40, mitochondrial DNA copy number, and intracellular ATP. Along with these indirect markers of mitochondrial transfer, endothelial tightness was also restored after OGD. Taken together, these findings suggest that EPCs may support brain endothelial energetics, barrier integrity, and angiogenic function partly through extracellular mitochondrial transfer. Stem Cells 2018;36:1404-1410.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazuhide Hayakawa
- Neuroprotection Research Laboratory, Departments of Radiology and Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Su Jing Chan
- Neuroprotection Research Laboratory, Departments of Radiology and Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Emiri T Mandeville
- Neuroprotection Research Laboratory, Departments of Radiology and Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Ji Hyun Park
- Neuroprotection Research Laboratory, Departments of Radiology and Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Morgan Bruzzese
- Neuroprotection Research Laboratory, Departments of Radiology and Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Joan Montaner
- Neurovascular Research Laboratory, Vall d'Hebron Research Institute, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ken Arai
- Neuroprotection Research Laboratory, Departments of Radiology and Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Anna Rosell
- Neurovascular Research Laboratory, Vall d'Hebron Research Institute, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Eng H Lo
- Neuroprotection Research Laboratory, Departments of Radiology and Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, Massachusetts, USA
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16
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Zhou Y, Wang Z, Li J, Li X, Xiao J. Fibroblast growth factors in the management of spinal cord injury. J Cell Mol Med 2017; 22:25-37. [PMID: 29063730 PMCID: PMC5742738 DOI: 10.1111/jcmm.13353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2017] [Accepted: 07/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) possesses a significant health and economic burden worldwide. Traumatic SCI is a devastating condition that evolves through two successive stages. Throughout each of these stages, disturbances in ionic homeostasis, local oedema, ischaemia, focal haemorrhage, free radicals stress and inflammatory response were observed. Although there are no fully restorative cures available for SCI patients, various molecular, cellular and rehabilitative therapies, such as limiting local inflammation, preventing secondary cell death and enhancing the plasticity of local circuits in the spinal cord, were described. Current preclinical studies have showed that fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) alone or combination therapies utilizing cell transplantation and biomaterial scaffolds are proven effective for treating SCI in animal models. More importantly, some studies further demonstrated a paucity of clinical transfer usage to promote functional recovery of numerous patients with SCI. In this review, we focus on the therapeutic capacity and pitfalls of the FGF family and its clinical application for treating SCI, including the signalling component of the FGF pathway and the role in the central nervous system, the pathophysiology of SCI and the targets for FGF treatment. We also discuss the challenges and potential for the clinical translation of FGF-based approaches into treatments for SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yulong Zhou
- Department of Orthopaedics, The Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China.,Molecular Pharmacology Research Center, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Zhouguang Wang
- Molecular Pharmacology Research Center, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Jiawei Li
- Department of Orthopaedics, The Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China.,Molecular Pharmacology Research Center, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Xiaokun Li
- Molecular Pharmacology Research Center, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Jian Xiao
- Department of Orthopaedics, The Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China.,Molecular Pharmacology Research Center, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
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17
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Epi/perineural and Schwann Cells as Well as Perineural Sheath Integrity are Affected Following 2,4-D Exposure. Neurotox Res 2017; 32:624-638. [PMID: 28699141 DOI: 10.1007/s12640-017-9777-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2016] [Revised: 06/24/2017] [Accepted: 06/28/2017] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
2,4-dicholorophenoxy acetic acid (2,4-D) is a worldwide-known hormone herbicide. However, there are increasing concerns about its exposure and risks of developing pathological conditions for the peripheral nervous system. The aim of this study was to investigate the mechanism(s) involved in the toxicity of 2,4-D on peripheral nerve's cellular components. The epi/perineural and Schwann cells and a total of three cell lines were treated with 2,4-D. The viability of cells at different doses of 2,4-D was measured by MTT assay. The cell cycle analyses, cumulative cell counting, fluorescent staining, antioxidant and caspase enzymes activity were examined on epi/perineural and Schwann cells. The epi/perineural cells were assessed as having biological macromolecular changes. Some tight junction-related genes and proteins were also tested on explants of 2,4-D treated epi/perineural tissue. The viability of 2,4-D treated cells was reduced in a dose-dependent manner. Reduced growth rate and G1 cell cycle arrest were verified in 2,4-D treated epi/perineural and Schwann cells. The use of staining methods (acridine orange/ethidium bromide and DAPI) and caspase 3/7 activity assay along with malondialdehyde, glutathione peroxidase, and superoxide dismutase activity assays indicated the apoptotic and oxidant effects of 2,4-D on epi/perineural and Schwann cells. Data obtained from FTIR revealed changes in epi/perineural proteins and cell membrane lipids. Additionally, claudin-1, occludin, and ZO-1 gene/protein expression profiles were significantly reduced in 2,4-D-treated epi/perineural pieces. Our data indicated that oxidative stress, apoptosis of epi/perineural and Schwann cell and impaired blood-nerve barrier may have contributed to nerve damage following 2,4-D exposure.
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18
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A versatile ex vivo technique for assaying tumor angiogenesis and microglia in the brain. Oncotarget 2016; 7:1838-53. [PMID: 26673818 PMCID: PMC4811501 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.6550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2015] [Accepted: 11/20/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Primary brain tumors are hallmarked for their destructive activity on the microenvironment and vasculature. However, solely few experimental techniques exist to access the tumor microenvironment under anatomical intact conditions with remaining cellular and extracellular composition. Here, we detail an ex vivo vascular glioma impact method (VOGIM) to investigate the influence of gliomas and chemotherapeutics on the tumor microenvironment and angiogenesis under conditions that closely resemble the in vivo situation. We generated organotypic brain slice cultures from rats and transgenic mice and implanted glioma cells expressing fluorescent reporter proteins. In the VOGIM, tumor-induced vessels presented the whole range of vascular pathologies and tumor zones as found in human primary brain tumor specimens. In contrast, non-transformed cells such as primary astrocytes do not alter the vessel architecture. Vascular characteristics with vessel branching, junctions and vessel meshes are quantitatively assessable as well as the peritumoral zone. In particular, the VOGIM resembles the brain tumor microenvironment with alterations of neurons, microglia and cell survival. Hence, this method allows live cell monitoring of virtually any fluorescence-reporter expressing cell. We further analyzed the vasculature and microglia under the influence of tumor cells and chemotherapeutics such as Temozolamide (Temodal/Temcad®). Noteworthy, temozolomide normalized vasculare junctions and branches as well as microglial distribution in tumor-implanted brains. Moreover, VOGIM can be facilitated for implementing the 3Rs in experimentations. In summary, the VOGIM represents a versatile and robust technique which allows the assessment of the brain tumor microenvironment with parameters such as angiogenesis, neuronal cell death and microglial activity at the morphological and quantitative level.
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19
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Steinemann A, Galm I, Chip S, Nitsch C, Maly IP. Claudin-1, -2 and -3 Are Selectively Expressed in the Epithelia of the Choroid Plexus of the Mouse from Early Development and into Adulthood While Claudin-5 is Restricted to Endothelial Cells. Front Neuroanat 2016; 10:16. [PMID: 26941614 PMCID: PMC4761916 DOI: 10.3389/fnana.2016.00016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2015] [Accepted: 02/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
A primary function of epithelial and endothelial monolayers is the formation of barriers that separate tissues into functional compartments. Tight junctions (TJs) seal the intercellular space between the single cells of a monolayer. TJs thus contribute importantly to the homeostasis of the cerebrospinal fluid as they help in maintaining the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and the blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier (CSF). The composition of TJs differs by its localization as well as the stage of development according to its respective function. Claudin-3 is typically present in the epithelia and has been claimed to be a constituent of the BBB. It is, however, notoriously difficult to demonstrate its expression in endothelial cells of the brain vasculature at the morphological level by means of immunohistochemical techniques. Using an improved fixation strategy (4% paraformaldehyde at pH 11, in the presence of EDTA) and the sensitive alkaline phosphatase as a detection system, we show that claudin-3 is present in mouse epithelia from embryonic day 14 onwards. In brain, it is restricted to the anlage of choroid plexus in the ventricles, together with claudin-1 and -2. In adult mice, it is clearly delineating the epithelium of the choroid plexus in the lateral and fourth ventricles. In contrast, in cerebral blood vessels claudin-3 as well as claudin-1 and -2 are absent in cerebral blood vessels during all developmental stages up to adulthood. Rather, the BBB is characterized by the presence of claudin-5, ZO-1 and occludin. Thus, in mice claudin-3 is an important constituent of TJ in the embryonic and in the adult choroid plexus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Steinemann
- Department of Biomedicine, Section of Functional Neuroanatomy, University of Basel Basel, Switzerland
| | - Isabel Galm
- Department of Biomedicine, Section of Functional Neuroanatomy, University of Basel Basel, Switzerland
| | - Sophorn Chip
- Department of Biomedicine, Section of Functional Neuroanatomy, University of Basel Basel, Switzerland
| | - Cordula Nitsch
- Department of Biomedicine, Section of Functional Neuroanatomy, University of Basel Basel, Switzerland
| | - Ireneusz Piotr Maly
- Department of Biomedicine, Section of Functional Neuroanatomy, University of Basel Basel, Switzerland
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20
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Negishi T, Matsumoto M, Kojima M, Asai R, Kanehira T, Sakaguchi F, Takahata K, Arakaki R, Aoyama Y, Yoshida H, Yoshida K, Yukawa K, Tashiro T, Hirano S. Diphenylarsinic Acid Induced Activation of Cultured Rat Cerebellar Astrocytes: Phosphorylation of Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases, Upregulation of Transcription Factors, and Release of Brain-Active Cytokines. Toxicol Sci 2015; 150:74-83. [PMID: 26645585 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfv310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Diphenylarsinic acid (DPAA) was detected as the primary compound responsible for the arsenic poisoning that occurred in Kamisu, Ibaraki, Japan, where people using water from a well that was contaminated with a high level of arsenic developed neurological (mostly cerebellar) symptoms and dysregulation of regional cerebral blood flow. To understand the underlying molecular mechanism of DPAA-induced cerebellar symptoms, we focused on astrocytes, which have a brain-protective function. Incubation with 10 µM DPAA for 96 h promoted cell proliferation, increased the expression of antioxidative stress proteins (heme oxygenase-1 and heat shock protein 70), and induced the release of cytokines (MCP-1, adrenomedullin, FGF2, CXCL1, and IL-6). Furthermore, DPAA overpoweringly increased the phosphorylation of three major mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) (ERK1/2, p38MAPK, and SAPK/JNK), which indicated MAPK activation, and subsequently induced expression and/or phosphorylation of transcription factors (Nrf2, CREB, c-Jun, and c-Fos) in cultured rat cerebellar astrocytes. Structure-activity relationship analyses of DPAA and other related pentavalent organic arsenicals revealed that DPAA at 10 µM activated astrocytes most effective among organic arsenicals tested at the same dose. These results suggest that in a cerebellum exposed to DPAA, abnormal activation of the MAPK-transcription factor pathway and irregular secretion of these neuroactive, glioactive, and/or vasoactive cytokines in astrocytes can be the direct/indirect cause of functional abnormalities in surrounding neurons, glial cells, and vascular cells: This in turn might lead to the onset of cerebellar symptoms and disruption of cerebral blood flow.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takayuki Negishi
- *Department of Physiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Meijo University, 150 Yagotoyama, Tempaku-ku, Nagoya-shi, Aichi 468-8503, Japan;
| | - Mami Matsumoto
- *Department of Physiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Meijo University, 150 Yagotoyama, Tempaku-ku, Nagoya-shi, Aichi 468-8503, Japan
| | - Mikiya Kojima
- *Department of Physiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Meijo University, 150 Yagotoyama, Tempaku-ku, Nagoya-shi, Aichi 468-8503, Japan
| | - Ryota Asai
- *Department of Physiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Meijo University, 150 Yagotoyama, Tempaku-ku, Nagoya-shi, Aichi 468-8503, Japan
| | - Tomoko Kanehira
- *Department of Physiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Meijo University, 150 Yagotoyama, Tempaku-ku, Nagoya-shi, Aichi 468-8503, Japan
| | - Fumika Sakaguchi
- *Department of Physiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Meijo University, 150 Yagotoyama, Tempaku-ku, Nagoya-shi, Aichi 468-8503, Japan
| | - Kazuaki Takahata
- *Department of Physiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Meijo University, 150 Yagotoyama, Tempaku-ku, Nagoya-shi, Aichi 468-8503, Japan
| | - Rina Arakaki
- *Department of Physiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Meijo University, 150 Yagotoyama, Tempaku-ku, Nagoya-shi, Aichi 468-8503, Japan
| | - Yohei Aoyama
- *Department of Physiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Meijo University, 150 Yagotoyama, Tempaku-ku, Nagoya-shi, Aichi 468-8503, Japan
| | - Hikari Yoshida
- *Department of Physiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Meijo University, 150 Yagotoyama, Tempaku-ku, Nagoya-shi, Aichi 468-8503, Japan
| | - Kenji Yoshida
- *Department of Physiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Meijo University, 150 Yagotoyama, Tempaku-ku, Nagoya-shi, Aichi 468-8503, Japan
| | - Kazunori Yukawa
- *Department of Physiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Meijo University, 150 Yagotoyama, Tempaku-ku, Nagoya-shi, Aichi 468-8503, Japan
| | - Tomoko Tashiro
- Department of Chemistry and Biological Science, Aoyama Gakuin University, 5-10-1 Fuchinobe, Chuo-ku, Sagamihara-shi, Kanagawa 252-5258, Japan; and
| | - Seishiro Hirano
- Research Center for Environmental Risk, National Institute for Environmental Studies, 16-2 Onogawa, Tsukuba-City, Ibaraki 305-8506, Japan
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21
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Hutter-Schmid B, Kniewallner KM, Humpel C. Organotypic brain slice cultures as a model to study angiogenesis of brain vessels. Front Cell Dev Biol 2015; 3:52. [PMID: 26389117 PMCID: PMC4557061 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2015.00052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2015] [Accepted: 08/11/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Brain vessels are the most important structures in the brain to deliver energy and substrates to neurons. Brain vessels are composed of a complex interaction between endothelial cells, pericytes, and astrocytes, controlling the entry of substrates into the brain. Damage of brain vessels and vascular impairment are general pathologies observed in different neurodegenerative disorders including e.g., Alzheimer's disease. In order to study remodeling of brain vessels, simple 3-dimensional in vitro systems need to be developed. Organotypic brain slices of mice provide a potent tool to explore angiogenic effects of brain vessels in a complex 3-dimensional structure. Here we show that organotypic brain slices can be cultured from 110 μm thick sections of postnatal and adult mice brains. The vessels are immunohistochemically stained for laminin and collagen IV. Co-stainings are an appropriate method to visualize interaction of brain endothelial cells with pericytes and astrocytes in these vessels. Different exogenous stimuli such as fibroblast growth factor-2 or vascular endothelial growth factor induce angiogenesis or re-growth, respectively. Hyperthermia or acidosis reduces the vessel density in organotypic slices. In conclusion, organotypic brain slices exhibit a strong vascular network which can be used to study remodeling and angiogenesis of brain vessels in a 3-dimensional in vitro system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bianca Hutter-Schmid
- Laboratory of Psychiatry and Experimental Alzheimer's Research, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical University of Innsbruck Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Kathrin M Kniewallner
- Laboratory of Psychiatry and Experimental Alzheimer's Research, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical University of Innsbruck Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Christian Humpel
- Laboratory of Psychiatry and Experimental Alzheimer's Research, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical University of Innsbruck Innsbruck, Austria
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22
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Humpel C. Organotypic brain slice cultures: A review. Neuroscience 2015; 305:86-98. [PMID: 26254240 PMCID: PMC4699268 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2015.07.086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 271] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2015] [Revised: 07/24/2015] [Accepted: 07/31/2015] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
In vitro cell cultures are an important tool for obtaining insights into cellular processes in an isolated system and a supplement to in vivo animal experiments. While primary dissociated cultures permit a single homogeneous cell population to be studied, there is a clear need to explore the function of brain cells in a three-dimensional system where the main architecture of the cells is preserved. Thus, organotypic brain slice cultures have proven to be very useful in investigating cellular and molecular processes of the brain in vitro. This review summarizes (1) the historical development of organotypic brain slices focusing on the membrane technology, (2) methodological aspects regarding culturing procedures, age of donors or media, (3) whether the cholinergic neurons serve as a model of neurodegeneration in Alzheimer’s disease, (4) or the nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons as a model of Parkinson’s disease and (5) how the vascular network can be studied, especially with regard to a synthetic blood–brain barrier. This review will also highlight some limits of the model and give an outlook on future applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Humpel
- Laboratory of Psychiatry and Experimental Alzheimer's Research, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical University of Innsbruck, Anichstrasse 35, A-6020 Innsbruck, Austria.
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23
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Chip S, Zhu X, Kapfhammer JP. The analysis of neurovascular remodeling in entorhino-hippocampal organotypic slice cultures. J Vis Exp 2014:e52023. [PMID: 25408363 DOI: 10.3791/52023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Ischemic brain injury is among the most common and devastating conditions compromising proper brain function and often leads to persisting functional deficits in the affected patients. Despite intensive research efforts, there is still no effective treatment option available that reduces neuronal injury and protects neurons in the ischemic areas from delayed secondary death. Research in this area typically involves the use of elaborate and problematic animal models. Entorhino-hippocampal organotypic slice cultures challenged with oxygen and glucose deprivation (OGD) are established in vitro models which mimic cerebral ischemia. The novel aspect of this study is that changes of the brain blood vessels are studied in addition to neuronal changes and the reaction of both the neuronal compartment and the vascular compartment can be compared and correlated. The methods presented in this protocol substantially broaden the potential applications of the organotypic slice culture approach. The induction of OGD or hypoxia alone can be applied by rather simple means in organotypic slice cultures and leads to reliable and reproducible damage in the neural tissue. This is in stark contrast to the complicated and problematic animal experiments inducing stroke and ischemia in vivo. By broadening the analysis to include the study of the reaction of the vasculature could provide new ways on how to preserve and restore brain functions. The slice culture approach presented here might develop into an attractive and important tool for the study of ischemic brain injury and might be useful for testing potential therapeutic measures aimed at neuroprotection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophorn Chip
- Anatomical Institute, Department of Biomedicine Basel, University of Basel
| | - Xinzhou Zhu
- Department of Neonatology, University Children's Hospital (UKBB), University of Basel
| | - Josef P Kapfhammer
- Anatomical Institute, Department of Biomedicine Basel, University of Basel;
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Fibroblast growth factor signaling affects vascular outgrowth and is required for the maintenance of blood vessel integrity. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014; 21:1310-1317. [PMID: 25200605 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2014.07.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2013] [Revised: 06/26/2014] [Accepted: 07/14/2014] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Angiogenesis contributes to the development of numerous disorders. Even though fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) were discovered as mediators of angiogenesis more than 30 years ago, their role in developmental angiogenesis still remains elusive. We use a recently described chemical probe, SSR128129E (SSR), that selectively inhibits the action of multiple FGF receptors (FGFRs), in combination with the zebrafish model to examine the role of FGF signaling in vascular development. We observe that while FGFR signaling is less important for vessel guidance, it affects vascular outgrowth and is especially required for the maintenance of blood vessel integrity by ensuring proper cell-cell junctions between endothelial cells. In conclusion, our work illustrates the power of a small molecule probe to reveal insights into blood vessel formation and stabilization and thus of broad interest to the vascular biology community.
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Liu X, Zhang T, He S, Hong B, Chen Z, Peng D, Wu Y, Wen H, Lin Z, Fang Y, Jiang K. Elevated serum levels of FGF-2, NGF and IGF-1 in patients with manic episode of bipolar disorder. Psychiatry Res 2014; 218:54-60. [PMID: 24793757 DOI: 10.1016/j.psychres.2014.03.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2013] [Revised: 02/15/2014] [Accepted: 03/29/2014] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Multiple neurotrophic and/or growth factors, recently nominated as "angioneurins", play the key roles in mood modulation and neuroplasticity, and their dysfunction might be involved in the pathophysiology and treatment of mood disorders. We examined serum levels of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), fibroblast growth factor (FGF)-2, nerve growth factor (NGF) and insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-1 in 70 drug-naïve or drug-free patients with manic episode of bipolar disorder and 50 healthy controls, using the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) method. The results showed that mean serum levels of VEGF, FGF-2, NGF and IGF-1 were 168.13±225.61pg/ml, 279.09±378.62pg/ml, 61.38±171.67pg/ml and 162.01±72.00ng/ml in patients, and 140.80±143.71pg/ml, 275.46±235.29pg/ml, 36.34±15.14pg/ml and 138.90±80.11ng/ml in healthy controls, respectively. Serum levels of FGF-2, NGF and IGF-1 in patients were significantly higher than those in healthy controls, though there was no statistical difference in serum VEGF level between two groups. Moreover, serum NGF level in patients was significantly correlated with duration of disorder and times of previous manic episodes. We conclude that the increase of serum FGF-2, NGF and IGF-1 levels in manic state of bipolar disorder may be associated with their compensatory roles of neuroprotection and angiogenesis, and these angioneurins may be involved in the pathophysiology of bipolar disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaohua Liu
- Department of Psychiatry, Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 600 South Wanping Road, Shanghai 200030, PR China.
| | - Tianhong Zhang
- Department of Psychiatry, Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 600 South Wanping Road, Shanghai 200030, PR China
| | - Shen He
- Department of Psychiatry, Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 600 South Wanping Road, Shanghai 200030, PR China
| | - Bo Hong
- Department of Psychiatry, Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 600 South Wanping Road, Shanghai 200030, PR China
| | - Zheng Chen
- Department of Psychiatry, Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 600 South Wanping Road, Shanghai 200030, PR China
| | - Daihui Peng
- Department of Psychiatry, Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 600 South Wanping Road, Shanghai 200030, PR China
| | - Yan Wu
- Department of Psychiatry, Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 600 South Wanping Road, Shanghai 200030, PR China
| | - Hui Wen
- Department of Psychiatry, Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 600 South Wanping Road, Shanghai 200030, PR China
| | - Zhiguang Lin
- Biochemistry Laboratory, Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, PR China
| | - Yiru Fang
- Department of Psychiatry, Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 600 South Wanping Road, Shanghai 200030, PR China
| | - Kaida Jiang
- Department of Psychiatry, Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 600 South Wanping Road, Shanghai 200030, PR China
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Ischemia/Reperfusion-induced neovascularization in the cerebral cortex of the ovine fetus. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2014; 73:495-506. [PMID: 24806298 DOI: 10.1097/nen.0000000000000071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Information on the effects of injury on neovascularization in the immature brain is limited. We investigated the effects of ischemia on cerebral cortex neovascularization after the exposure of fetuses to 30 minutes of cerebral ischemia followed by 48 hours of reperfusion (I/R-48), 30 minutes of cerebral ischemia followed by 72 hours of reperfusion (I/R-72), or sham control treatment (Non-I/R). Immunohistochemical and morphometric analyses of cerebral cortex sections included immunostaining for glial fibrillary acidic protein and collagen type IV (a molecular component of the vascular basal lamina) to determine the glial vascular network in fetal brains and Ki67 as a proliferation marker. Cerebral cortices from I/R-48 and I/R-72 fetuses exhibited general responses to ischemia, including reactive astrocyte morphology, which was not observed in Non-I/R fetuses. Cell bodies of reactive proliferating astrocytes, along with large end-feet, surrounded the walls of cerebral cortex microvessels in addition to the thick collagen type IV-enriched basal lamina. Morphometric analysis of the Non-I/R group with the I/R-48 and I/R-72 groups revealed increased collagen type IV density in I/R-72 cerebral cortex microvessels (p < 0.01), which also frequently displayed a sprouting appearance characterized by growing tip cells and activated pericytes. Increases in cerebral cortex basic fibroblast growth factor were associated with neovascularization. We conclude that increased neovascularization in fetal cerebral cortices occurs within 72 hours of ischemia.
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Romariz SA, Garcia KDO, Paiva DDS, Bittencourt S, Covolan L, Mello LE, Longo BM. Participation of bone marrow-derived cells in hippocampal vascularization after status epilepticus. Seizure 2014; 23:386-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.seizure.2014.01.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2013] [Revised: 12/24/2013] [Accepted: 01/22/2014] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
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Muoio V, Persson PB, Sendeski MM. The neurovascular unit - concept review. Acta Physiol (Oxf) 2014; 210:790-8. [PMID: 24629161 DOI: 10.1111/apha.12250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 340] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2013] [Revised: 08/01/2013] [Accepted: 01/27/2014] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The cerebral hyperaemia is one of the fundamental mechanisms for the central nervous system homeostasis. Due also to this mechanism, oxygen and nutrients are maintained in satisfactory levels, through vasodilation and vasoconstriction. The brain hyperaemia, or coupling, is accomplished by a group of cells, closely related to each other; called neurovascular unit (NVU). The neurovascular unit is composed by neurones, astrocytes, endothelial cells of blood-brain barrier (BBB), myocytes, pericytes and extracellular matrix components. These cells, through their intimate anatomical and chemical relationship, detect the needs of neuronal supply and trigger necessary responses (vasodilation or vasoconstriction) for such demands. Here, we review the concepts of NVU, the coupling mechanisms and research strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- V. Muoio
- Institut für Vegetative Physiologie; Charite- Universisitätmedizin Berlin; Berlin Germany
| | - P. B. Persson
- Institut für Vegetative Physiologie; Charite- Universisitätmedizin Berlin; Berlin Germany
| | - M. M. Sendeski
- Institut für Vegetative Physiologie; Charite- Universisitätmedizin Berlin; Berlin Germany
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Watson PMD, Paterson JC, Thom G, Ginman U, Lundquist S, Webster CI. Modelling the endothelial blood-CNS barriers: a method for the production of robust in vitro models of the rat blood-brain barrier and blood-spinal cord barrier. BMC Neurosci 2013; 14:59. [PMID: 23773766 PMCID: PMC3694476 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2202-14-59] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2012] [Accepted: 06/05/2013] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Modelling the blood-CNS barriers of the brain and spinal cord in vitro continues to provide a considerable challenge for research studying the passage of large and small molecules in and out of the central nervous system, both within the context of basic biology and for pharmaceutical drug discovery. Although there has been considerable success over the previous two decades in establishing useful in vitro primary endothelial cell cultures from the blood-CNS barriers, no model fully mimics the high electrical resistance, low paracellular permeability and selective influx/efflux characteristics of the in vivo situation. Furthermore, such primary-derived cultures are typically labour-intensive and generate low yields of cells, limiting scope for experimental work. We thus aimed to establish protocols for the high yield isolation and culture of endothelial cells from both rat brain and spinal cord. Our aim was to optimise in vitro conditions for inducing phenotypic characteristics in these cells that were reminiscent of the in vivo situation, such that they developed into tight endothelial barriers suitable for performing investigative biology and permeability studies. Methods Brain and spinal cord tissue was taken from the same rats and used to specifically isolate endothelial cells to reconstitute as in vitro blood-CNS barrier models. Isolated endothelial cells were cultured to expand the cellular yield and then passaged onto cell culture inserts for further investigation. Cell culture conditions were optimised using commercially available reagents and the resulting barrier-forming endothelial monolayers were characterised by functional permeability experiments and in vitro phenotyping by immunocytochemistry and western blotting. Results Using a combination of modified handling techniques and cell culture conditions, we have established and optimised a protocol for the in vitro culture of brain and, for the first time in rat, spinal cord endothelial cells. High yields of both CNS endothelial cell types can be obtained, and these can be passaged onto large numbers of cell culture inserts for in vitro permeability studies. The passaged brain and spinal cord endothelial cells are pure and express endothelial markers, tight junction proteins and intracellular transport machinery. Further, both models exhibit tight, functional barrier characteristics that are discriminating against large and small molecules in permeability assays and show functional expression of the pharmaceutically important P-gp efflux transporter. Conclusions Our techniques allow the provision of high yields of robust sister cultures of endothelial cells that accurately model the blood-CNS barriers in vitro. These models are ideally suited for use in studying the biology of the blood-brain barrier and blood-spinal cord barrier in vitro and for pre-clinical drug discovery.
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VEGF-A165 potently induces human blood-nerve barrier endothelial cell proliferation, angiogenesis, and wound healing in vitro. Cell Mol Neurobiol 2013; 33:789-801. [PMID: 23712256 DOI: 10.1007/s10571-013-9946-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2013] [Accepted: 05/18/2013] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Several mitogens such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) have been implicated in mammalian vascular proliferation and repair. However, the molecular mediators of human blood-nerve barrier (BNB) development and specialization are unknown. Primary human endoneurial endothelial cells (pHEndECs) were expanded in vitro and specific mitogen receptors detected by western blot. pHEndECs were cultured with basal medium containing different mitogen concentrations with or without heparin. Non-radioactive cell proliferation, Matrigel(™)-induced angiogenesis and sterile micropipette injury wound healing assays were performed. Proliferation rates, number and total length of induced microvessels, and rate of endothelial cell monolayer wound healing were determined and compared to basal conditions. VEGF-A165 in the presence of heparin, was the most potent inducer of pHEndEC proliferation, angiogenesis, and wound healing in vitro. 1.31 nM VEGF-A165 induced ~110 % increase in cell proliferation relative to basal conditions (∼51 % without heparin). 2.62 pM VEGF-A165 induced a three-fold increase in mean number of microvessels and 3.9-fold increase in total capillary length/field relative to basal conditions. In addition, 0.26 nM VEGF-A165 induced ∼1.3-fold increased average rate of endothelial wound healing 4-18 h after endothelial monolayer injury, mediated by increased cell migration. VEGF-A165 was the only mitogen capable of complete wound closure, occurring within 30 h following injury via increased cell proliferation. This study demonstrates that VEGF-A165, in the presence of heparin, is a potent inducer of pHEndEC proliferation, angiogenesis, and wound healing in vitro. VEGF-A165 may be an important mitogen necessary for human BNB development and recovery in response to peripheral nerve injury.
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Chip S, Nitsch C, Wellmann S, Kapfhammer JP. Subfield-specific neurovascular remodeling in the entorhino-hippocampal-organotypic slice culture as a response to oxygen-glucose deprivation and excitotoxic cell death. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2013; 33:508-18. [PMID: 23232944 PMCID: PMC3618384 DOI: 10.1038/jcbfm.2012.190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Transient ischemia causes delayed neurodegeneration in selective brain areas, particularly in the CA1 field of the hippocampus. This is accompanied by neurovascular impairment. It is unknown whether neurodegeneration is the cause or consequence of vascular changes. In an entorhino-hippocampal-organotypic slice culture system with well-preserved blood vessels, we studied the interplay between neurodegeneration and neurovasculature. Short-term oxygen and glucose deprivation (OGD) resulted in upregulation of hypoxic markers and with a delay of 24 to 48 hours in selective nerve cell death in CA1. In parallel, local vessel density decreased as detected by markers of endothelial cells and of the extracellular matrix. Claudin-5, a tight junction protein and marker of the blood-brain barrier was reduced. Preventing neuronal death with tetrodotoxin or 6-cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione rescued blood vessels, suggesting that vessel loss is not due to OGD per se but a consequence of neuronal death. Induction of excitotoxic neuronal death with AMPA caused widespread neurodegeneration, but vessel reduction was confined to CA1. In dentate gyrus without neuronal loss, vessel density increased. We propose that neuronal stress and death influence maintenance, loss and remodeling of the neurovasculature and that the type of vascular response is in addition determined by local factors within the hippocampus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophorn Chip
- Department of Biomedicine, Section of Functional Neuroanatomy, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
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Morin-Brureau M, De Bock F, Lerner-Natoli M. Organotypic brain slices: a model to study the neurovascular unit micro-environment in epilepsies. Fluids Barriers CNS 2013; 10:11. [PMID: 23391266 PMCID: PMC3605299 DOI: 10.1186/2045-8118-10-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2012] [Accepted: 01/28/2013] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background It is now recognized that the neuro-vascular unit (NVU) plays a key role in several neurological diseases including epilepsy, stroke, Alzheimer’s disease, multiple sclerosis and the development of gliomas. Most of these disorders are associated with NVU dysfunction, due to overexpression of inflammatory factors such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). Various in vitro models have been developed previously to study the micro-environment of the blood–brain barrier (BBB). However none of these in vitro models contained a complete complement of NVU cells, nor maintained their interactions, thus minimizing the influence of the surrounding tissue on the BBB development and function. The organotypic hippocampal culture (OHC) is an integrative in vitro model that allows repeated manipulations over time to further understand the development of cell circuits or the mechanisms of brain diseases. Methods/design OHCs were cultured from hippocampi of 6–7 day-old Sprague Dawley rats. After 2 weeks in culture, seizures were induced by application of kainate or bicuculline into culture medium. The regulation of BBB integrity under physiological and pathological conditions was evaluated by immunostaining of the main tight junction (TJ) proteins and of the basal membrane of microvessels. To mimic or prevent BBB disassembly, we used diverse pro- or anti-angiogenic treatments. Discussion This study demonstrates that NVU regulation can be investigated using OHCs. We observed in this model system an increase in vascularization and a down-regulation of TJ proteins, similar to the vascular changes described in a chronic focus of epileptic patients, and in rodent models of epilepsy or inflammation. We observed that Zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1) protein disappeared after seizures associated with neuronal damage. In these conditions, the angiopoeitin-1 system was down-regulated, and the application of r-angiopoeitin-1 allowed TJ re-assembly. This article demonstrates that organotypic culture is a useful model to decipher the links between epileptic activity and vascular damage, and also to investigate NVU regulation in diverse neurological disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mélanie Morin-Brureau
- Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle, CNRS UMR5203, INSERM U661, Université Montpellier 1, 2, Montpellier, France.
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Initial contact of glioblastoma cells with existing normal brain endothelial cells strengthen the barrier function via fibroblast growth factor 2 secretion: a new in vitro blood-brain barrier model. Cell Mol Neurobiol 2013; 33:489-501. [PMID: 23385422 DOI: 10.1007/s10571-013-9913-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2013] [Accepted: 01/25/2013] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) cells invade along the existing normal capillaries in brain. Normal capillary endothelial cells function as the blood-brain barrier (BBB) that limits permeability of chemicals into the brain. To investigate whether GBM cells modulate the BBB function of normal endothelial cells, we developed a new in vitro BBB model with primary cultures of rat brain endothelial cells (RBECs), pericytes, and astrocytes. Cells were plated on a membrane with 8 μm pores, either as a monolayer or as a BBB model with triple layer culture. The BBB model consisted of RBEC on the luminal side as a bottom, and pericytes and astrocytes on the abluminal side as a top of the chamber. Human GBM cell line, LN-18 cells, or lung cancer cell line, NCI-H1299 cells, placed on either the RBEC monolayer or the BBB model increased the transendothelial electrical resistance (TEER) values against the model, which peaked within 72 h after the tumor cell application. The TEER value gradually returned to baseline with LN-18 cells, whereas the value quickly dropped to the baseline in 24 h with NCI-H1299 cells. NCI-H1299 cells invaded into the RBEC layer through the membrane, but LN-18 cells did not. Fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF-2) strengthens the endothelial cell BBB function by increased occludin and ZO-1 expression. In our model, LN-18 and NCI-H1299 cells secreted FGF-2, and a neutralization antibody to FGF-2 inhibited LN-18 cells enhanced BBB function. These results suggest that FGF-2 would be a novel therapeutic target for GBM in the perivascular invasive front.
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Diphenylarsinic acid increased the synthesis and release of neuroactive and vasoactive peptides in rat cerebellar astrocytes. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2012; 71:468-79. [PMID: 22588385 DOI: 10.1097/nen.0b013e3182561327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
An incident of poisoning occurred in Japan in 2003 when high-level contamination with arsenic, mainly diphenylarsinic acid (DPAA), was found in well water. People using this water particularly experienced cerebellar symptoms. In the present study, we investigated the adverse effects of DPAA on the cerebellum in vitro and in vivo to understand the biological mechanisms that cause cerebellar symptoms. Comprehensive gene expression analyses in primary cultured ratcerebellar cells exposed to 10 μM DPAA for 24 hours indicated significant alterations in the mRNA expression of genes encoding antioxidative stress proteins (heme oxigenase 1 and heat shock protein72) and neuroactive and vasoactive peptides (neuropeptide Y, adrenomedullin, monocyte chemoattractant protein 1, and fibroblast growth factor 2). Further analyses of proteins revealed that cultured cerebellar astrocytes expressed these antioxidative stress proteins and peptides in response to exposure to DPAA. In addition, these adverseeffects were also observed in the cerebellum exposed in vivo to DPAA (100 mg/L) for 21 days. These results suggested that cerebellarastrocytes irregularly secrete neuroactive and vasoactive peptidesagainst DPAA-induced oxidative stress, which leads to abnormal neural functions and disrupted cerebellar autoregulation dynamics and results in the onset of cerebellar symptoms.
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Yosef N, Ubogu EE. GDNF restores human blood-nerve barrier function via RET tyrosine kinase-mediated cytoskeletal reorganization. Microvasc Res 2012; 83:298-310. [PMID: 22326552 DOI: 10.1016/j.mvr.2012.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2011] [Revised: 01/05/2012] [Accepted: 01/25/2012] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
Endoneurial microvessels and the perineurium are responsible for maintaining homeostasis in peripheral nerves. Endoneurial endothelial cells form the blood-nerve barrier (BNB). The molecular pathways responsible for endoneurial microvascular barrier formation in humans are not fully understood. We tested the effect of different mitogens on the transendothelial electrical resistance (TEER) of confluent primary human endoneurial endothelial cell (pHEndEC) cultures following serum withdrawal (mimicking diffuse endothelial injury) in vitro. We show that glial-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF, 1 ng/mL) sufficiently induced a maximal 114.2% recovery in TEER over basal conditions 48 h after serum withdrawal. Solute permeability to high molecular weight dextran was reduced by 52.4% following GDNF treatment. GDNF-mediated increase in TEER was dependent on RET tyrosine-kinase signaling pathways and mildly enhanced by cyclic adenosine monophosphate in combination with maximal concentrations of multiple redundant mitogens. There was no significant increase in adherens or tight junction proteins β-catenin, VE-Cadherin, zona occludens-1 and occludin following GDNF treatment. GDNF induced a small increase in total claudin-5 protein expression without significant increase in messenger RNA or modulation in tyrosine phosphorylation following serum withdrawal. Indirect immunocytochemistry revealed membrane relocation of longitudinal F-actin cytoskeletal filaments in pHEndECs following GDNF treatment, resulting in more continuous intercellular contacts that formed adherens and tight junctions. Together, these results demonstrate a sufficient role for GDNF in human BNB recovery following serum withdrawal in vitro, facilitated primarily by endothelial cell cytoskeletal reorganization. These observations provide insights into the regulation of human BNB function during recovery from peripheral nerve injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nejla Yosef
- Neuromuscular Immunopathology Research Laboratory, Department of Neurology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030-3411, USA
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Shimizu F, Sano Y, Saito K, Abe MA, Maeda T, Haruki H, Kanda T. Pericyte-derived glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor increase the expression of claudin-5 in the blood-brain barrier and the blood-nerve barrier. Neurochem Res 2011; 37:401-9. [PMID: 22002662 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-011-0626-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2011] [Revised: 09/15/2011] [Accepted: 09/30/2011] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The destruction of blood-brain barrier (BBB) and blood-nerve barrier (BNB) has been considered to be a key step in the disease process of a number of neurological disorders including cerebral ischemia, Alzheimer's disease, multiple sclerosis, and diabetic neuropathy. Although glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) facilitate neuronal or axonal regeneration in the brain or peripheral nerves, their action in the BBB and BNB remains unclear. The purpose of the present study was to elucidate whether these neurotrophic factors secreted from the brain or peripheral nerve pericytes increase the barrier function of the BBB or BNB, using our newly established human brain microvascular endothelial cell (BMEC) line or peripheral nerve microvascular endothelial cell (PnMEC) line. GDNF increased the expression of claudin-5 and the transendothelial electrical resistance (TEER) of BMECs and PnMECs, whereas BDNF did not have this effect. Furthermore, we herein demonstrate that the GDNF secreted from the brain and peripheral nerve pericytes was one of the key molecules responsible for the up-regulation of claudin-5 expression and the TEER value in the BBB and BNB. These results indicate that the regulation of GDNF secreted from pericytes may therefore be a novel therapeutic strategy to modify the BBB or BNB functions and promote brain or peripheral nerve regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fumitaka Shimizu
- Department of Neurology and Clinical Neuroscience, Yamaguchi University Graduate School of Medicine, 1-1-1, Minamikogushi, Ube, Yamaguchi, 7558505, Japan
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Zehendner CM, Librizzi L, de Curtis M, Kuhlmann CRW, Luhmann HJ. Caspase-3 contributes to ZO-1 and Cl-5 tight-junction disruption in rapid anoxic neurovascular unit damage. PLoS One 2011; 6:e16760. [PMID: 21364989 PMCID: PMC3043060 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0016760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2010] [Accepted: 12/29/2010] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Tight-junction (TJ) protein degradation is a decisive step in hypoxic blood-brain barrier (BBB) breakdown in stroke. In this study we elucidated the impact of acute cerebral ischemia on TJ protein arrangement and the role of the apoptotic effector protease caspase-3 in this context. Methodology/Principal Findings We used an in vitro model of the neurovascular unit and the guinea pig whole brain preparation to analyze with immunohistochemical methods the BBB properties and neurovascular integrity. In both methodological approaches we observed rapid TJ protein disruptions after 30 min of oxygen and glucose deprivation or middle cerebral artery occlusion, which were accompanied by strong caspase-3 activation in brain endothelial cells (BEC). Surprisingly only few DNA-fragmentations were detected with TUNEL stainings in BEC. Z-DEVD-fmk, an irreversible caspase-3 inhibitor, partly blocked TJ disruptions and was protective on trans-endothelial electrical resistance. Conclusions/Significance Our data provide evidence that caspase-3 is rapidly activated during acute cerebral ischemia predominantly without triggering DNA-fragmentation in BEC. Further we detected fast TJ protein disruptions which could be partly blocked by caspase-3 inhibition with Z-DEVD-fmk. We suggest that the basis for clinically relevant BBB breakdown in form of TJ disruptions is initiated within minutes during ischemia and that caspase-3 contributes to this process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoph M. Zehendner
- Institute of Physiology and Pathophysiology, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg-University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Laura Librizzi
- Unit of Experimental Neurophysiology and Epileptology, Fondazione Istituto Neurologico Carlo Besta, Milano, Italy
| | - Marco de Curtis
- Unit of Experimental Neurophysiology and Epileptology, Fondazione Istituto Neurologico Carlo Besta, Milano, Italy
| | - Christoph R. W. Kuhlmann
- Institute of Physiology and Pathophysiology, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg-University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Heiko J. Luhmann
- Institute of Physiology and Pathophysiology, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg-University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany
- * E-mail:
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Slice cultures as a model to study neurovascular coupling and blood brain barrier in vitro. Cardiovasc Psychiatry Neurol 2011; 2011:646958. [PMID: 21350722 PMCID: PMC3042620 DOI: 10.1155/2011/646958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2010] [Accepted: 12/24/2010] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Proper neuronal functioning depends on a strictly regulated interstitial environment and tight coupling of neuronal and metabolic activity involving adequate vascular responses. These functions take place at the blood brain barrier (BBB) composed of endothelial cells, basal lamina covered with pericytes, and the endfeet of perivascular astrocytes. In conventional in vitro models of the BBB, some of these components are missing.
Here we describe a new model system for studying BBB and neurovascular coupling by using confocal microscopy and fluorescence staining protocols in organotypic hippocampal slice cultures.
An elaborated network of vessels is retained in culture in spite of the absence of blood flow. Application of calcein-AM either from the interstitial or from the luminal side resulted in different staining patterns indicating the maintenance of a barrier. By contrast, the ethidium derivative MitoSox penetrated perivascular basal lamina and revealed free radical formation in contractile cells embracing the vessels, likely pericytes.
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Grupp L, Wolburg H, Mack AF. Astroglial structures in the zebrafish brain. J Comp Neurol 2011; 518:4277-87. [PMID: 20853506 DOI: 10.1002/cne.22481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
To understand components shaping the neuronal environment we studied the astroglial cells in the zebrafish brain using immunocytochemistry for structural and junctional markers, electron microscopy including freeze fracturing, and probed for the water channel protein aquaporin-4. Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and glutamine synthetase (GS) showed largely overlapping immunoreactivity: GFAP in the main glial processes and GS in main processes and smaller branches. Claudin-3 immunoreactivity was spread in astroglial cells along their major processes. The ventricular lining was immunoreactive for the tight-junction associated protein ZO-1, in the telencephalon located on the dorsal, lateral, and medial surface due to the everting morphogenesis. In the tectum, subpial glial endfeet were also positive for ZO-1. Correspondingly, electron microscopy revealed junctional complexes between subpial glial endfeet. However, in freeze-fracture analysis tight junctional strands were not found between astroglial membranes, either in the optic tectum or in the telencephalon. Occurrence of aquaporin-4, the major astrocytic water channel in mammals, was demonstrated by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) analysis and immunocytochemistry in tectum and telencephalon. Localization of aquaporin-4 was not polarized but distributed along the entire radial extent of the cell. Interestingly, their membranes were devoid of the orthogonal arrays of particles formed by aquaporin-4 in mammals. Finally, we investigated astroglial cells in proliferative areas. Brain lipid basic protein, a marker of early glial differentiation but not GS, were present in some proliferation zones, whereas cells lining the ventricle were positive for both markers. Thus, astroglial cells in the zebrafish differ in many aspects from mammalian astrocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Larissa Grupp
- Institute of Anatomy, University of Tübingen, D-72074 Tübingen, Germany
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Shimizu F, Sano Y, Abe MA, Maeda T, Ohtsuki S, Terasaki T, Kanda T. Peripheral nerve pericytes modify the blood-nerve barrier function and tight junctional molecules through the secretion of various soluble factors. J Cell Physiol 2010; 226:255-66. [PMID: 20665675 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.22337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
The objectives of this study were to establish pure blood-nerve barrier (BNB) and blood-brain barrier (BBB)-derived pericyte cell lines of human origin and to investigate their unique properties as barrier-forming cells. Brain and peripheral nerve pericyte cell lines were established via transfection with retrovirus vectors incorporating human temperature-sensitive SV40 T antigen (tsA58) and telomerase. These cell lines expressed several pericyte markers such as α-smooth muscle actin, NG2, platelet-derived growth factor receptor β, whereas they did not express endothelial cell markers such as vWF and PECAM. In addition, the inulin clearance was significantly lowered in peripheral nerve microvascular endothelial cells (PnMECs) through the up-regulation of claudin-5 by soluble factors released from brain or peripheral nerve pericytes. In particular, bFGF secreted from peripheral nerve pericytes strengthened the barrier function of the BNB by increasing the expression of claudin-5. Peripheral nerve pericytes may regulate the barrier function of the BNB, because the BNB does not contain cells equivalent to astrocytes which regulate the BBB function. Furthermore, these cell lines expressed several neurotrophic factors such as NGF, BDNF, and GDNF. The secretion of these growth factors from peripheral nerve pericytes might facilitate axonal regeneration in peripheral neuropathy. Investigation of the characteristics of peripheral nerve pericytes may provide novel strategies for modifying BNB functions and promoting peripheral nerve regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fumitaka Shimizu
- Department of Neurology and Clinical Neuroscience, Yamaguchi University Graduate School of Medicine, Ube, Yamaguchi, Japan
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Kang CE, Clarkson R, Tator CH, Yeung IWT, Shoichet MS. Spinal cord blood flow and blood vessel permeability measured by dynamic computed tomography imaging in rats after localized delivery of fibroblast growth factor. J Neurotrauma 2010; 27:2041-53. [PMID: 20799884 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2010.1345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Following spinal cord injury, profound vascular changes lead to ischemia and hypoxia of spinal cord tissue. Since fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2) has angiogenic effects, its delivery to the injured spinal cord may attenuate the tissue damage associated with ischemia. To limit systemic mitogenic effects, FGF2 was delivered to the spinal cord via a gel of hyaluronan and methylcellulose (HAMC) injected into the intrathecal space, and compared to controls receiving HAMC alone and artificial cerebrospinal fluid (aCSF) alone. Dynamic perfusion computed tomography (CT) was employed for the first time in small animals to serially measure blood flow and permeability in the injured and uninjured spinal cord. Spinal cord blood flow (SCBF) and permeability-surface area (PS) measurements were obtained near the injury epicenter, and at two regions rostral to the epicenter in animals that received a 26-g clip compression injury. As predicted, SCBF measurements decreased and PS increased after injury. FGF2 delivered via HAMC after injury restored SCBF towards pre-injury values in all regions, and increased blood flow rates at 7 days post-injury compared to pre-injury measurements. PS was stabilized at regions rostral to the epicenter of injury when FGF2 was delivered with HAMC, with significantly lower values than aCSF controls at 7 days in the region farthest from the epicenter. Laminin staining for blood vessels showed a qualitative increase in vessel density after 7 days when FGF2 was locally delivered. Additionally, permeability stains showed that FGF2 moderately decreased permeability at 7 days post-injury. These data demonstrate that localized delivery of FGF2 improves spinal cord hemodynamics following injury, and that perfusion CT is an important technique to serially measure these parameters in small animal models of spinal cord injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine E Kang
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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Romanitan MO, Popescu BO, Spulber S, Băjenaru O, Popescu LM, Winblad B, Bogdanovic N. Altered expression of claudin family proteins in Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia brains. J Cell Mol Med 2010; 14:1088-100. [PMID: 20041969 PMCID: PMC3822746 DOI: 10.1111/j.1582-4934.2009.00999.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Claudins (Cls) are a multigene family of transmembrane proteins with different tissue distribution, which have an essential role in the formation and sealing capacity of tight junctions (TJs). At the level of the blood–brain barrier (BBB), TJs are the main molecular structures which separate the neuronal milieu from the circulatory space, by a restriction of the paracellular flow of water, ions and larger molecules into the brain. Different studies suggested recently significant BBB alterations in both vascular and degenerative dementia types. In a previous study we found in Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and vascular dementia (VaD) brains an altered expression of occludin, a molecular partner of Cls in the TJs structure. Therefore in this study, using an immunohistochemical approach, we investigated the expression of Cl family proteins (Cl-2, Cl-5 and Cl-11) in frontal cortex of aged control, AD and VaD brains. To estimate the number of Cl-expressing cells, we applied a random systematic sampling and the unbiased optical fractionator method. We found selected neurons, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes and endothelial cells expressing Cl-2, Cl-5 and Cl-11 at detectable levels in all cases studied. We report a significant increase in ratio of neurons expressing Cl-2, Cl-5 and Cl-11 in both AD and VaD as compared to aged controls. The ratio of astrocytes expressing Cl-2 and Cl-11 was significantly higher in AD and VaD as compared to aged controls. The ratio of oligodendrocytes expressing Cl-11 was significantly higher in AD and the ratio of oligodendrocytes expressing Cl-2 was significantly higher in VaD as compared to aged controls. Within the cerebral cortex, Cls were selectively expressed by pyramidal neurons, which are the ones responsible for cognitive processes and affected by AD pathology. Our findings suggest a new function of Cl family proteins which might be linked to response to cellular stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mihaela O Romanitan
- Laboratory of Molecular Medicine, 'Victor Babeş' National Institute of Pathology, Spl Independenţei, Bucharest, Romania
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Preservation of transendothelial glucose transporter 1 and P-glycoprotein transporters in a cortical slice culture model of the blood–brain barrier. Neuroscience 2010; 170:361-71. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2010.06.073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2010] [Revised: 06/13/2010] [Accepted: 06/25/2010] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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S100b counteracts neurodegeneration of rat cholinergic neurons in brain slices after oxygen-glucose deprivation. Cardiovasc Psychiatry Neurol 2010; 2010:106123. [PMID: 20508809 PMCID: PMC2875695 DOI: 10.1155/2010/106123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2010] [Revised: 03/02/2010] [Accepted: 03/04/2010] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease is a severe chronic neurodegenerative disorder characterized by beta-amyloid plaques, tau pathology, cerebrovascular damage, inflammation, reactive gliosis, and cell death of cholinergic neurons. The aim of the present study is to test whether the glia-derived molecule S100b can counteract neurodegeneration of cholinergic neurons after oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) in organotypic brain slices of basal nucleus of Meynert. Our data showed that 3 days of OGD induced a marked decrease of cholinergic neurons (60% of control), which could be counteracted by 50 μg/mL recombinant S100b. The effect was dose and time dependent. Application of nerve growth factor or fibroblast growth factor-2 was less protective. C-fos-like immunoreactivity was enhanced 3 hours after OGD indicating metabolic stress. We conclude that S100b is a potent neuroprotective factor for cholinergic neurons during ischemic events.
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Yang J, Meyer M, Müller AK, Böhm F, Grose R, Dauwalder T, Verrey F, Kopf M, Partanen J, Bloch W, Ornitz DM, Werner S. Fibroblast growth factor receptors 1 and 2 in keratinocytes control the epidermal barrier and cutaneous homeostasis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010; 188:935-52. [PMID: 20308431 PMCID: PMC2845079 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.200910126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Loss of FGFRs results in skin abnormalities due to activation of keratinocytes and epidermal T cells. Fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) are master regulators of organogenesis and tissue homeostasis. In this study, we used different combinations of FGF receptor (FGFR)-deficient mice to unravel their functions in the skin. Loss of the IIIb splice variants of FGFR1 and FGFR2 in keratinocytes caused progressive loss of skin appendages, cutaneous inflammation, keratinocyte hyperproliferation, and acanthosis. We identified loss of FGF-induced expression of tight junction components with subsequent deficits in epidermal barrier function as the mechanism underlying the progressive inflammatory skin disease. The defective barrier causes activation of keratinocytes and epidermal γδ T cells, which produce interleukin-1 family member 8 and S100A8/A9 proteins. These cytokines initiate an inflammatory response and induce a double paracrine loop through production of keratinocyte mitogens by dermal cells. Our results identify essential roles for FGFs in the regulation of the epidermal barrier and in the prevention of cutaneous inflammation, and highlight the importance of stromal–epithelial interactions in skin homeostasis and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingxuan Yang
- Department of Biology, Institute of Cell Biology, Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
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Hatakeyama S, Ishida K, Takeda Y. Changes in cell characteristics due to retinoic acid; specifically, a decrease in the expression of claudin-1 and increase in claudin-4 within tight junctions in stratified oral keratinocytes. J Periodontal Res 2010; 45:207-15. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0765.2009.01219.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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Pivotal role for beta-1 integrin in neurovascular remodelling after ischemic stroke. Exp Neurol 2009; 221:107-14. [PMID: 19837065 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2009.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2009] [Revised: 10/07/2009] [Accepted: 10/07/2009] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
beta1 integrin is a cell surface molecule that is critical for endothelial cell adhesion, migration and survival during angiogenesis. In the present study we employed in vivo and in vitro models to elucidate the role of beta1 integrin in vascular remodelling and stroke outcomes. At 24 h after cerebral ischemia and reperfusion (I/R), the ischemic cortex (ipsilateral area) exhibited modest beta1 integrin immunoreactivity and a robust increase was observed at 72 h. Double-label immunohistochemical analysis for beta1 integrin with neuronal (NeuN), microglial (Iba-1), astrocyte (GFAP), progenitor cell (Ng2) and blood vessel (collagen 4) markers showed that beta1 integrin expression only localized to blood vessels. In vitro studies using cultured endothelial cells and a beta1 integrin blocking antibody confirmed that beta1 integrin is required for endothelial cell migration, proliferation and blood vessel formation. In vivo studies in the cerebral I/R model using the beta1 integrin blocking antibody further confirmed that beta1 integrin signaling is involved in vascular formation and recovery following ischemic stroke. Finally, we found that beta1 integrin is critically involved in functional deficits and survival after a stroke. These results suggest that beta1 integrin plays important roles in neurovascular remodelling and functional outcomes following stroke, and that targeting the beta1 integrin signalling may provide a novel strategy for modulating angiogenesis in ischemic stroke and other pathological conditions.
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Jenny B, Kanemitsu M, Tsupykov O, Potter G, Salmon P, Zgraggen E, Gascon E, Skibo G, Dayer AG, Kiss JZ. Fibroblast growth factor-2 overexpression in transplanted neural progenitors promotes perivascular cluster formation with a neurogenic potential. Stem Cells 2009; 27:1309-17. [PMID: 19489096 DOI: 10.1002/stem.46] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Stem/progenitor cell-based therapies hold promises for repairing the damaged nervous system. However, the efficiency of these approaches for neuronal replacement remains very limited. A major challenge is to develop pretransplant cell manipulations that may promote the survival, engraftment, and differentiation of transplanted cells. Here, we investigated whether overexpression of fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF-2) in grafted neural progenitors could improve their integration in the host tissue. We show that FGF-2-transduced progenitors grafted in the early postnatal rat cortex have the distinct tendency to associate with the vasculature and establish multiple proliferative clusters in the perivascular environment. The contact with vessels appears to be critical for maintaining progenitor cells in an undifferentiated and proliferative phenotype in the intact cortex. Strikingly, perivascular clusters of FGF-2 expressing cells seem to supply immature neurons in an ischemic environment. Our data provide evidence that engineering neural progenitors to overexpress FGF-2 may be a suitable strategy to improve the integration of grafted neural progenitor cells with the host vasculature thereby generating neurovascular clusters with a neurogenic potential for brain repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benoit Jenny
- Department of Neurosciences, University Medical Center, University of Geneva Medical School, Geneva, Switzerland
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49
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Cell death and proliferation in acute slices and organotypic cultures of mammalian CNS. Prog Neurobiol 2009; 88:221-45. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2009.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2008] [Revised: 12/09/2008] [Accepted: 01/07/2009] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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50
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Glavaski-Joksimovic A, Virag T, Chang QA, West NC, Mangatu TA, McGrogan MP, Dugich-Djordjevic M, Bohn MC. Reversal of Dopaminergic Degeneration in a Parkinsonian Rat following Micrografting of Human Bone Marrow-Derived Neural Progenitors. Cell Transplant 2009; 18:801-14. [DOI: 10.3727/096368909x470801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a common neurodegenerative disease characterized by the selective loss of dopaminergic (DA) neurons in the midbrain. Various types of stem cells that have potential to differentiate into DA neurons are being investigated as cellular therapies for PD. Stem cells also secrete growth factors and therefore also may have therapeutic effects in promoting the health of diseased DA neurons in the PD brain. To address this possibility in an experimental model of PD, bone marrow-derived neuroprogenitor-like cells were generated from bone marrow procured from healthy human adult volunteers and their potential to elicit recovery of damaged DA axons was studied in a partial lesion rat model of PD. Following collection of bone marrow, mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) were isolated and then genetically modified to create SB623 cells by transient transfection with the intracellular domain of the Notch1 gene (NICD), a modification that upregulates expression of certain neuroprogenitor markers. Ten deposits of 0.5 μl of SB623 cell suspension adjusted from 6,000 to 21,000 cells/μl in PBS or PBS alone were stereotaxically placed in the striatum 1 week after the nigrostriatal projection had been partially lesioned in adult F344 rats by injection of 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) into the striatum. At 3 weeks, a small number of grafted SB623 cells survived in the lesioned striatum as visualized by expression of the human specific nuclear matrix protein (hNuMA). In rats that received SB623 cells, but not in control rats, dense tyrosine hydroxylase immunoreactive (TH-ir) fibers were observed around the grafts. These fibers appeared to be rejuvenated host DA axons because no TH-ir in soma of surviving SB623 cells or coexpression of TH and hNuMA-ir were observed. In addition, dense serotonin immunoreactive (5-HT-ir) fibers were observed around grafted SB623 cells and these fibers also appeared to be of the host origin. Also, in some SB623 grafted rats that were sacrificed within 2 h of dl-amphetamine injection, hot spots of c-Fos-positive nuclei that coincided with rejuvenated dense TH fibers around the grafted SB623 cells were observed, suggesting increased availability of DA in these locations. Our observations suggest that NICD-transfected MSC hold potential as a readily available autologous or allogenic cellular therapy for ameliorating the degeneration of DA and 5-HT neurons in PD patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aleksandra Glavaski-Joksimovic
- Department of Pediatrics, Neurobiology Program, Children's Memorial Research Center, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Tamas Virag
- Department of Pediatrics, Neurobiology Program, Children's Memorial Research Center, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Qin A. Chang
- Department of Pediatrics, Neurobiology Program, Children's Memorial Research Center, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Neva C. West
- Department of Pediatrics, Neurobiology Program, Children's Memorial Research Center, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Thomas A. Mangatu
- Department of Pediatrics, Neurobiology Program, Children's Memorial Research Center, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
| | | | | | - Martha C. Bohn
- Department of Pediatrics, Neurobiology Program, Children's Memorial Research Center, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
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