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Aydin A, Klenk C, Nemec K, Işbilir A, Martin LM, Zauber H, Rrustemi T, Toka HR, Schuster H, Gong M, Stricker S, Bock A, Bähring S, Selbach M, Lohse MJ, Luft FC. ADAM19 cleaves the PTH receptor and associates with brachydactyly type E. Life Sci Alliance 2024; 7:e202302400. [PMID: 38331475 PMCID: PMC10853454 DOI: 10.26508/lsa.202302400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2023] [Revised: 01/25/2024] [Accepted: 01/25/2024] [Indexed: 02/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Brachydactyly type E (BDE), shortened metacarpals, metatarsals, cone-shaped epiphyses, and short stature commonly occurs as a sole phenotype. Parathyroid hormone-like protein (PTHrP) has been shown to be responsible in all forms to date, either directly or indirectly. We used linkage and then whole genome sequencing in a small pedigree, to elucidate BDE and identified a truncated disintegrin-and-metalloproteinase-19 (ADAM19) allele in all affected family members, but not in nonaffected persons. Since we had shown earlier that the extracellular domain of the parathyroid hormone receptor (PTHR1) is subject to an unidentified metalloproteinase cleavage, we tested the hypothesis that ADAM19 is a sheddase for PTHR1. WT ADAM19 cleaved PTHR1, while mutated ADAM-19 did not. We mapped the cleavage site that we verified with mass spectrometry between amino acids 64-65. ADAM-19 cleavage increased Gq and decreased Gs activation. Moreover, perturbed PTHR1 cleavage by ADAM19 increased ß-arrestin2 recruitment, while cAMP accumulation was not altered. We suggest that ADAM19 serves as a regulatory element for PTHR1 and could be responsible for BDE. This sheddase may affect other PTHrP or PTH-related functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atakan Aydin
- Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association (MDC), Berlin, Germany
- https://ror.org/001w7jn25 Experimental and Clinical Research Center, A Cooperation Between the Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association and Charité Universitätsmedizin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Christoph Klenk
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Katarina Nemec
- Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association (MDC), Berlin, Germany
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
- Department of Structural Biology and Center of Excellence for Data-Driven Discovery, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Ali Işbilir
- Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association (MDC), Berlin, Germany
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Lisa M Martin
- Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association (MDC), Berlin, Germany
| | - Henrik Zauber
- Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association (MDC), Berlin, Germany
| | - Trendelina Rrustemi
- Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association (MDC), Berlin, Germany
| | - Hakan R Toka
- https://ror.org/001w7jn25 Experimental and Clinical Research Center, A Cooperation Between the Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association and Charité Universitätsmedizin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Herbert Schuster
- https://ror.org/001w7jn25 Experimental and Clinical Research Center, A Cooperation Between the Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association and Charité Universitätsmedizin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Maolian Gong
- https://ror.org/001w7jn25 Experimental and Clinical Research Center, A Cooperation Between the Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association and Charité Universitätsmedizin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Sigmar Stricker
- Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Andreas Bock
- Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association (MDC), Berlin, Germany
- Rudolf-Boehm-Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical Faculty, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Sylvia Bähring
- https://ror.org/001w7jn25 Experimental and Clinical Research Center, A Cooperation Between the Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association and Charité Universitätsmedizin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Matthias Selbach
- Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association (MDC), Berlin, Germany
| | - Martin J Lohse
- Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association (MDC), Berlin, Germany
- ISAR Bioscience Institute, Munich, Germany
| | - Friedrich C Luft
- Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association (MDC), Berlin, Germany
- https://ror.org/001w7jn25 Experimental and Clinical Research Center, A Cooperation Between the Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association and Charité Universitätsmedizin, Berlin, Germany
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2
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Verma A, Arya R, Brahmachari V. Identification of a polycomb responsive region in human HoxA cluster and its long-range interaction with polycomb enriched genomic regions. Gene 2022; 845:146832. [PMID: 36007803 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2022.146832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2022] [Revised: 08/15/2022] [Accepted: 08/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Polycomb and Trithorax group proteins (PcG, TrxG) epigenetically regulate developmental genes. These proteins bind with specific DNA elements, the Polycomb Response Element (PRE). Apart from mutations in polycomb/ trithorax proteins, altered cis-elements like PRE underlie the modified function and thus disease etiology. PREs are well studied in Drosophila, while only a few human PREs have been reported. We have identified a polycomb responsive DNA element, hPRE-HoxA3, in the intron of the HoxA3 gene. The hPRE-HoxA3 represses luciferase reporter activity in a PcG-dependent manner. The endogenous hPRE-HoxA3 element recruits PcG proteins and is enriched with repressive H3K27me3 marks, demonstrating that hPRE-HoxA3 is a part of the PcG-dependent gene regulatory network. Furthermore, it interacts with D11-12, the well-known PRE in the human Hox cluster. hPRE-Hox3 is a part of the 3-dimensional chromosomal domain organization as it is involved in the long-range interaction with other PcG enriched regions of Hox A, B, C, and D clusters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akanksha Verma
- Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Center for Biomedical Research, University of Delhi, Delhi-110007, India.
| | - Richa Arya
- Current address- Cytogenetics Laboratory, Department of Zoology, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India.
| | - Vani Brahmachari
- Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Center for Biomedical Research, University of Delhi, Delhi-110007, India
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Liu W, Zhong W, Chen J, Huang B, Hu M, Li Y. Understanding Regulatory Mechanisms of Brain Function and Disease through 3D Genome Organization. Genes (Basel) 2022; 13:genes13040586. [PMID: 35456393 PMCID: PMC9027261 DOI: 10.3390/genes13040586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2022] [Revised: 03/17/2022] [Accepted: 03/23/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The human genome has a complex and dynamic three-dimensional (3D) organization, which plays a critical role for gene regulation and genome function. The importance of 3D genome organization in brain development and function has been well characterized in a region- and cell-type-specific fashion. Recent technological advances in chromosome conformation capture (3C)-based techniques, imaging approaches, and ligation-free methods, along with computational methods to analyze the data generated, have revealed 3D genome features at different scales in the brain that contribute to our understanding of genetic mechanisms underlying neuropsychiatric diseases and other brain-related traits. In this review, we discuss how these advances aid in the genetic dissection of brain-related traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weifang Liu
- Department of Biostatistics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; (W.L.); (J.C.)
| | - Wujuan Zhong
- Biostatistics and Research Decision Sciences, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, NJ 07065, USA;
| | - Jiawen Chen
- Department of Biostatistics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; (W.L.); (J.C.)
| | - Bo Huang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA;
- Chan Zuckerberg Biohub, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Ming Hu
- Department of Quantitative Health Sciences, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
- Correspondence: (M.H.); (Y.L.)
| | - Yun Li
- Department of Biostatistics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; (W.L.); (J.C.)
- Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
- Department of Computer Science, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
- Correspondence: (M.H.); (Y.L.)
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Remec ZI, Trebusak Podkrajsek K, Repic Lampret B, Kovac J, Groselj U, Tesovnik T, Battelino T, Debeljak M. Next-Generation Sequencing in Newborn Screening: A Review of Current State. Front Genet 2021; 12:662254. [PMID: 34122514 PMCID: PMC8188483 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2021.662254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2021] [Accepted: 04/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Newborn screening was first introduced at the beginning of the 1960s with the successful implementation of the first phenylketonuria screening programs. Early expansion of the included disorders was slow because each additional disorder screened required a separate test. Subsequently, the technological advancements of biochemical methodology enabled the scaling-up of newborn screening, most notably with the implementation of tandem mass spectrometry. In recent years, we have witnessed a remarkable progression of high-throughput sequencing technologies, which has resulted in a continuous decrease of both cost and time required for genetic analysis. This has enabled more widespread use of the massive multiparallel sequencing. Genomic sequencing is now frequently used in clinical applications, and its implementation in newborn screening has been intensively advocated. The expansion of newborn screening has raised many clinical, ethical, legal, psychological, sociological, and technological concerns over time. This review provides an overview of the current state of next-generation sequencing regarding newborn screening including current recommendations and potential challenges for the use of such technologies in newborn screening.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ziga I. Remec
- Clinical Institute for Special Laboratory Diagnostics, University Children’s Hospital, University Medical Centre Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Katarina Trebusak Podkrajsek
- Clinical Institute for Special Laboratory Diagnostics, University Children’s Hospital, University Medical Centre Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
- Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Barbka Repic Lampret
- Clinical Institute for Special Laboratory Diagnostics, University Children’s Hospital, University Medical Centre Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Jernej Kovac
- Clinical Institute for Special Laboratory Diagnostics, University Children’s Hospital, University Medical Centre Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Urh Groselj
- Department of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolic Diseases, University Children’s Hospital, University Medical Centre Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
- Chair of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Tine Tesovnik
- Clinical Institute for Special Laboratory Diagnostics, University Children’s Hospital, University Medical Centre Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Tadej Battelino
- Department of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolic Diseases, University Children’s Hospital, University Medical Centre Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
- Chair of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Marusa Debeljak
- Clinical Institute for Special Laboratory Diagnostics, University Children’s Hospital, University Medical Centre Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
- Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
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From FISH to Hi-C: The Chromatin Architecture of the Chromosomal Region 7q36.3, Frequently Rearranged in Leukemic Cells, Is Evolutionary Conserved. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22052338. [PMID: 33652823 PMCID: PMC7956786 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22052338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2021] [Revised: 02/22/2021] [Accepted: 02/23/2021] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) and Hi-C methods are largely used to investigate the three-dimensional organization of the genome in the cell nucleus and are applied here to study the organization of genes (LMBR1, NOM1, MNX1, UBE3C, PTPRN2) localized in the human 7q36.3 band. This region contains the MNX1 gene, which is normally not expressed in human lymphocytes beyond embryonic development. However, this homeobox gene is frequently activated in leukemic cells and its expression is associated with an altered gene positioning in the leukemia cell nuclei. In this study, we used FISH on 3D-preserved nuclei to investigate the nuclear positioning of MNX1 in the leukemia-derived cell line K562. Of the five copies of the MNX1 gene present in K562, four alleles were positioned in the nuclear periphery and only one in the nuclear interior. Using the Juicebox’s Hi-C dataset, we identified five chromatin loops in the 7q36.3 band, with different extensions related to the size and orientation of the genes located here, and independent from their expression levels. We identified similar loops in 11 human and three mouse cell lines, showing that these loops are highly conserved in different human cell lines and during evolution. Moreover, the chromatin loop organization is well conserved also during neuronal cell differentiation, showing consistency in genomic organization of this region in development. In this report, we show that FISH and Hi-C are two different approaches that complement one another and together give complete information on the nuclear organization of specific chromosomal regions in different conditions, including cellular differentiation and genetic diseases.
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Schreier VN, Loehr MO, Deng T, Lattmann E, Hajnal A, Neuhauss SC, Luedtke NW. Fluorescent dATP for DNA Synthesis In Vivo. ACS Chem Biol 2020; 15:2996-3003. [PMID: 33108866 DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.0c00654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Fluorescent nucleoside triphosphates are powerful probes of DNA synthesis, but their potential use in living animals has been previously underexplored. Here, we report the synthesis and characterization of 7-deaza-(1,2,3-triazole)-2'-deoxyadenosine-5'-triphosphate (dATP) derivatives of tetramethyl rhodamine ("TAMRA-dATP"), cyanine ("Cy3-dATP"), and boron-dipyrromethene ("BODIPY-dATP"). Upon microinjection into live zebrafish embryos, all three compounds were incorporated into the DNA of dividing cells; however, their impact on embryonic toxicity was highly variable, depending on the exact structure of the dye. TAMRA-EdATP exhibited superior characteristics in terms of its high brightness, low toxicity, and rapid incorporation and depletion kinetics in both a vertebrate (zebrafish) and a nematode (Caenorhabditis elegans). TAMRA-EdATP allows for unprecedented, real-time visualization of DNA replication and chromosome segregation in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Verena N. Schreier
- Department of Chemistry, University of Zurich, Zurich CH-8006, Switzerland
| | - Morten O. Loehr
- Department of Chemistry, University of Zurich, Zurich CH-8006, Switzerland
- Department of Chemistry, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 0G4, Canada
| | - Ting Deng
- Department of Molecular Life Sciences, University of Zurich, Zurich CH-8006, Switzerland
| | - Evelyn Lattmann
- Department of Molecular Life Sciences, University of Zurich, Zurich CH-8006, Switzerland
| | - Alex Hajnal
- Department of Molecular Life Sciences, University of Zurich, Zurich CH-8006, Switzerland
| | - Stephan C.F. Neuhauss
- Department of Molecular Life Sciences, University of Zurich, Zurich CH-8006, Switzerland
| | - Nathan W. Luedtke
- Department of Chemistry, University of Zurich, Zurich CH-8006, Switzerland
- Department of Chemistry, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 0G4, Canada
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 0G4, Canada
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Kempfer R, Pombo A. Methods for mapping 3D chromosome architecture. Nat Rev Genet 2019; 21:207-226. [PMID: 31848476 DOI: 10.1038/s41576-019-0195-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 285] [Impact Index Per Article: 57.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Determining how chromosomes are positioned and folded within the nucleus is critical to understanding the role of chromatin topology in gene regulation. Several methods are available for studying chromosome architecture, each with different strengths and limitations. Established imaging approaches and proximity ligation-based chromosome conformation capture (3C) techniques (such as DNA-FISH and Hi-C, respectively) have revealed the existence of chromosome territories, functional nuclear landmarks (such as splicing speckles and the nuclear lamina) and topologically associating domains. Improvements to these methods and the recent development of ligation-free approaches, including GAM, SPRITE and ChIA-Drop, are now helping to uncover new aspects of 3D genome topology that confirm the nucleus to be a complex, highly organized organelle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rieke Kempfer
- Epigenetic Regulation and Chromatin Architecture Group, Berlin Institute for Medical Systems Biology, Max-Delbrück Centre for Molecular Medicine, Berlin, Germany. .,Institute for Biology, Humboldt University of Berlin, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Ana Pombo
- Epigenetic Regulation and Chromatin Architecture Group, Berlin Institute for Medical Systems Biology, Max-Delbrück Centre for Molecular Medicine, Berlin, Germany. .,Institute for Biology, Humboldt University of Berlin, Berlin, Germany.
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8
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Liehr T. From Human Cytogenetics to Human Chromosomics. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:E826. [PMID: 30769866 PMCID: PMC6413437 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20040826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2019] [Revised: 01/30/2019] [Accepted: 02/12/2019] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The concept of "chromosomics" was introduced by Prof. Uwe Claussen in 2005. Herein, the growing insights into human chromosome structure finally lead to a "chromosomic view" of the three-dimensional constitution and plasticity of genes in interphase nuclei are discussed. This review is dedicated to the memory of Prof. Uwe Claussen (30 April 1945⁻20 July 2008). RECENT FINDINGS Chromosomics is the study of chromosomes, their three-dimensional positioning in the interphase nucleus, the consequences from plasticity of chromosomal subregions and gene interactions, the influence of chromatin-modification-mediated events on cells, and even individuals, evolution, and disease. Progress achieved in recent years is summarized, including the detection of chromosome-chromosome-interactions which, if damaged, lead to malfunction and disease. However, chromosomics in the Human Genetics field is not progressing presently, as research interest has shifted from single cell to high throughput, genomic approaches. CONCLUSION Chromosomics and its impact were predicted correctly in 2005 by Prof. Claussen. Although some progress was achieved, present reconsiderations of the role of the chromosome and the single cell in Human Genetic research are urgently necessary.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Liehr
- Jena University Hospital, Friedrich Schiller University, Institute of Human Genetics, Am Klinikum 1, D-07747 Jena, Germany.
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Abstract
Abstract
Chromosomes were discovered more than 130 years ago. The implementation of chromosomal investigations in clinical diagnostics was fueled by determining the correct number of human chromosomes to be 46 and the development of specific banding techniques. Subsequent technical improvements in the field of genetic diagnostics, such as fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), chromosomal microarrays (CMA, array CGH) or next-generation sequencing (NGS) techniques, partially succeeded in overcoming limitations of banding cytogenetics. Consequently, nowadays, higher diagnostic yields can be achieved if new approaches such as NGS, CMA or FISH are applied in combination with cytogenetics. Nonetheless, high-resolution DNA-focused techniques have dominated clinical diagnostics more recently, rather than a “chromosomic view,” including banding cytogenetics as a precondition for the application of higher resolution methods. Currently, there is a renaissance of this “chromosomic view” in research, understanding chromosomes to be an essential feature of genomic architecture, owing to the discovery of (i) higher order chromosomal sub-compartments, (ii) chromosomal features that influence genomic architecture, gene expression, and evolution, and (iii) 3D and 4D chromatin organization within the nucleus, including the complex way in which chromosomes interact with each other. Interestingly, in many instances research was triggered by specific clinical diagnostic cases or diseases that contributed to new and fascinating insights, not only into disease mechanisms but also into basic principles of chromosome biology. Here we review the role, the intrinsic value, and the perspectives of chromosomes in a molecular genetics-dominated human genetics diagnostic era and make comparison with basic research, where these benefits are well-recognized.
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Maass PG, Barutcu AR, Rinn JL. Interchromosomal interactions: A genomic love story of kissing chromosomes. J Cell Biol 2018; 218:27-38. [PMID: 30181316 PMCID: PMC6314556 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.201806052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2018] [Revised: 07/27/2018] [Accepted: 08/01/2018] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Maass et al. review interchromosomal interactions, which, like intrachromosomal interactions, are emerging as important regulators of genome organization and gene expression. Nuclei require a precise three- and four-dimensional organization of DNA to establish cell-specific gene-expression programs. Underscoring the importance of DNA topology, alterations to the nuclear architecture can perturb gene expression and result in disease states. More recently, it has become clear that not only intrachromosomal interactions, but also interchromosomal interactions, a less studied feature of chromosomes, are required for proper physiological gene-expression programs. Here, we review recent studies with emerging insights into where and why cross-chromosomal communication is relevant. Specifically, we discuss how long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) and three-dimensional gene positioning are involved in genome organization and how low-throughput (live-cell imaging) and high-throughput (Hi-C and SPRITE) techniques contribute to understand the fundamental properties of interchromosomal interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philipp G Maass
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA
| | - A Rasim Barutcu
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.,Broad Institute of Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Harvard, Cambridge, MA
| | - John L Rinn
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA .,Broad Institute of Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Harvard, Cambridge, MA.,Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.,Department of Pathology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, MA.,University of Colorado, BioFrontiers, Department of Biochemistry, Boulder, CO
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