Spatial association of homologous pericentric regions in human lymphocyte nuclei during repair

Elucidation of the Clustered Nano-Architecture of Radiation-Induced DNA Damage Sites and Surrounding Chromatin in Cancer Cells: A Single Molecule Localization Microscopy Approach

In cancer therapy, the application of (fractionated) harsh radiation treatment is state of the art for many types of tumors. However, ionizing radiation is a "double-edged sword"-it can kill the tumor but can also promote the selection of radioresistant tumor cell clones or even initiate carcinogenesis in the normal irradiated tissue. Individualized radiotherapy would reduce these risks and boost the treatment, but its development requires a deep understanding of DNA damage and repair processes and the corresponding control mechanisms. DNA double strand breaks (DSBs) and their repair play a critical role in the cellular response to radiation. In previous years, it has become apparent that, beyond genetic and epigenetic determinants, the structural aspects of damaged chromatin (i.e., not only of DSBs themselves but also of the whole damage-surrounding chromatin domains) form another layer of complex DSB regulation. In the present article, we summarize the application of super-resolution single molecule localization microscopy (SMLM) for investigations of these structural aspects with emphasis on the relationship between the nano-architecture of radiation-induced repair foci (IRIFs), represented here by γH2AX foci, and their chromatin environment. Using irradiated HeLa cell cultures as an example, we show repair-dependent rearrangements of damaged chromatin and analyze the architecture of γH2AX repair clusters according to topological similarities. Although HeLa cells are known to have highly aberrant genomes, the topological similarity of γH2AX was high, indicating a functional, presumptively genome type-independent relevance of structural aspects in DSB repair. Remarkably, nano-scaled chromatin rearrangements during repair depended both on the chromatin domain type and the treatment. Based on these results, we demonstrate how the nano-architecture and topology of IRIFs and chromatin can be determined, point to the methodological relevance of SMLM, and discuss the consequences of the observed phenomena for the DSB repair network regulation or, for instance, radiation treatment outcomes.

A Paradigm Revolution or Just Better Resolution-Will Newly Emerging Superresolution Techniques Identify Chromatin Architecture as a Key Factor in Radiation-Induced DNA Damage and Repair Regulation?

DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) have been recognized as the most serious lesions in irradiated cells. While several biochemical pathways capable of repairing these lesions have been identified, the mechanisms by which cells select a specific pathway for activation at a given DSB site remain poorly understood. Our knowledge of DSB induction and repair has increased dramatically since the discovery of ionizing radiation-induced foci (IRIFs), initiating the possibility of spatiotemporally monitoring the assembly and disassembly of repair complexes in single cells. IRIF exploration revealed that all post-irradiation processes-DSB formation, repair and misrepair-are strongly dependent on the characteristics of DSB damage and the microarchitecture of the whole affected chromatin domain in addition to the cell status. The microscale features of IRIFs, such as their morphology, mobility, spatiotemporal distribution, and persistence kinetics, have been linked to repair mechanisms. However, the influence of various biochemical and structural factors and their specific combinations on IRIF architecture remains unknown, as does the hierarchy of these factors in the decision-making process for a particular repair mechanism at each individual DSB site. New insights into the relationship between the physical properties of the incident radiation, chromatin architecture, IRIF architecture, and DSB repair mechanisms and repair efficiency are expected from recent developments in optical superresolution microscopy (nanoscopy) techniques that have shifted our ability to analyze chromatin and IRIF architectures towards the nanoscale. In the present review, we discuss this relationship, attempt to correlate still rather isolated nanoscale studies with already better-understood aspects of DSB repair at the microscale, and consider whether newly emerging "correlated multiscale structuromics" can revolutionarily enhance our knowledge in this field.

Long non-coding RNA SeT and miR-155 regulate the Tnfα gene allelic expression profile

It is becoming increasingly appreciated that the non-coding genome may have a great impact on the regulation of chromatin structure and gene expression. The innate immune response can be mediated upon lipopolysaccharide stimulation of macrophages which leads to immediate transcriptional activation of early responsive genes including tumor necrosis factor alpha (Tnfα). The functional role of non-coding RNAs, such as lncRNAs and microRNAs, on the transcriptional activation of proinflammatory genes and the subsequent regulation of the innate immune response is still lacking mechanistic insights. In this study we wanted to unravel the functional role of the lncRNA SeT, which is encoded from the murine Tnfα gene locus, and miR-155 on the transcriptional regulation of the Tnfα gene. We utilized genetically modified mice harboring either a deletion of the SeT promoter elements or the mature miR-155 and studied the response of macrophages to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation. We found that decreased expression of the lncRNA SeT in murine primary macrophages resulted in increased mortality of mice challenged with LPS, which was corroborated by increased Tnfα steady state mRNA levels and a higher frequency of biallelically expressing macrophages. On the contrary, miR-155 deletion resulted in reduced Tnfα mRNA levels supported by a lower frequency of biallelically expressing macrophages upon stimulation with LPS. In both cases, in the absence of either lncRNA SeT or miR-155 we observed a deregulation of the Tnfα allele homologous pairing, previously shown to regulate the switch from mono- to bi-allelic gene expression. Although lncRNA SeT was not found to be a direct target of miR-155 its stability was increased upon miR-155 deletion. This study suggests a role of the non-coding genome in mediating Tnfα mRNA dosage control based on the regulation of homologous pairing of gene alleles and their subsequent biallelic expression.

Radiation induced chromatin conformation changes analysed by fluorescent localization microscopy, statistical physics, and graph theory

It has been well established that the architecture of chromatin in cell nuclei is not random but functionally correlated. Chromatin damage caused by ionizing radiation raises complex repair machineries. This is accompanied by local chromatin rearrangements and structural changes which may for instance improve the accessibility of damaged sites for repair protein complexes. Using stably transfected HeLa cells expressing either green fluorescent protein (GFP) labelled histone H2B or yellow fluorescent protein (YFP) labelled histone H2A, we investigated the positioning of individual histone proteins in cell nuclei by means of high resolution localization microscopy (Spectral Position Determination Microscopy = SPDM). The cells were exposed to ionizing radiation of different doses and aliquots were fixed after different repair times for SPDM imaging. In addition to the repair dependent histone protein pattern, the positioning of antibodies specific for heterochromatin and euchromatin was separately recorded by SPDM. The present paper aims to provide a quantitative description of structural changes of chromatin after irradiation and during repair. It introduces a novel approach to analyse SPDM images by means of statistical physics and graph theory. The method is based on the calculation of the radial distribution functions as well as edge length distributions for graphs defined by a triangulation of the marker positions. The obtained results show that through the cell nucleus the different chromatin re-arrangements as detected by the fluorescent nucleosomal pattern average themselves. In contrast heterochromatic regions alone indicate a relaxation after radiation exposure and re-condensation during repair whereas euchromatin seemed to be unaffected or behave contrarily. SPDM in combination with the analysis techniques applied allows the systematic elucidation of chromatin re-arrangements after irradiation and during repair, if selected sub-regions of nuclei are investigated.

Volume increase and spatial shifts of chromosome territories in nuclei of radiation-induced polyploidizing tumour cells

The exposure of tumour cells to high doses of ionizing radiation can induce endopolyploidization as an escape route from cell death. This strategy generally results in mitotic catastrophe during the first few days after irradiation. However, some cells escape mitotic catastrophe, polyploidize and attempt to undergo genome reduction and de-polyploidization in order to create new, viable para-diploid tumour cell sub-clones. In search for the consequences of ionizing radiation induced endopolyploidization, genome and chromosome architecture in nuclei of polyploid tumour cells, and sub-nuclei after division of bi- or multi-nucleated cells were investigated during 7 days following irradiation. Polyploidization was induced in p53-function deficient HeLa cells by exposure to 10Gy of X-irradiation. Chromosome territories #1, #4, #12 and centromeres of chromosomes #6, #10, #X were labelled by FISH and analysed for chromosome numbers, volumes and spatial distribution during 7 days post irradiation. The numbers of interphase chromosome territories or centromeres, respectively, the positions of the most peripherally and centrally located chromosome territories, and the territory volumes were compared to non-irradiated controls over this time course. Nuclei with three copies of several chromosomes (#1, #6, #10, #12, #X) were found in the irradiated as well as non-irradiated specimens. From day 2 to day 5 post irradiation, chromosome territories (#1, #4, #12) shifted towards the nuclear periphery and their volumes increased 16- to 25-fold. Consequently, chromosome territories returned towards the nuclear centre during day 6 and 7 post irradiation. In comparison to non-irradiated cells (∼500μm(3)), the nuclear volume of irradiated cells was increased 8-fold (to ∼4000μm(3)) at day 7 post irradiation. Additionally, smaller cell nuclei with an average volume of about ∼255μm(3) were detected on day 7. The data suggest a radiation-induced generation of large intra-nuclear chromosome territories and their repositioning prior to genome reduction.

The role of meiotic cohesin REC8 in chromosome segregation in gamma irradiation-induced endopolyploid tumour cells

Escape from mitotic catastrophe and generation of endopolyploid tumour cells (ETCs) represents a potential survival strategy of tumour cells in response to genotoxic treatments. ETCs that resume the mitotic cell cycle have reduced ploidy and are often resistant to these treatments. In search for a mechanism for genome reduction, we previously observed that ETCs express meiotic proteins among which REC8 (a meiotic cohesin component) is of particular interest, since it favours reductional cell division in meiosis. In the present investigation, we induced endopolyploidy in p53-dysfunctional human tumour cell lines (Namalwa, WI-L2-NS, HeLa) by gamma irradiation, and analysed the sub-cellular localisation of REC8 in the resulting ETCs. We observed by RT-PCR and Western blot that REC8 is constitutively expressed in these tumour cells, along with SGOL1 and SGOL2, and that REC8 becomes modified after irradiation. REC8 localised to paired sister centromeres in ETCs, the former co-segregating to opposite poles. Furthermore, REC8 localised to the centrosome of interphase ETCs and to the astral poles in anaphase cells where it colocalised with the microtubule-associated protein NuMA. Altogether, our observations indicate that radiation-induced ETCs express features of meiotic cell divisions and that these may facilitate chromosome segregation and genome reduction.

Alterations of centromere positions in nuclei of immortalized and malignant mouse lymphocytes

BACKGROUND

The three-dimensional (3D) positions of centromeres have been studied in several cell systems. However, data on centromere positions during cellular transformation remain elusive. This study has focused on mouse lymphocytes and investigated the centromere positions in primary, immortalized, and tumor cells.

METHODS

Eighty-to-ninety z-slices of each mouse lymphocyte nucleus were acquired using a sampling distance of 107 nm in the xy plane and 200 nm along z for each z-stack, using an Axioplan 2 microscope, an AxioCam HR CCD, a 63x/1.4 oil objective, and the Axiovision 3.1 software (Carl Zeiss, Canada). A constrained iterative algorithm (Schaefer et al., J Microsc 2001;204:99-107) was used for deconvolution. Centromere positions in 3D images were analyzed using CentroView, a program we developed to measure nuclear centromere positions.

RESULTS

Using CentroView we determined the positions of centromeres in primary lymphocytes, immortalized and malignant mouse B cells. We show that centromeres exhibit altered nuclear positions in immortalized and malignant B cells. These changes are independent of previously described cell cycle-dependent centromere dynamics.

CONCLUSIONS

The 3D positions of centromeres are altered during cellular transformation. In lymphocytes, centromeres are found in more central nuclear positions following immortalization and transformation. These nuclear changes reflect structural remodeling of mammalian nuclei during oncogenesis and may impact on the structural organization of chromosomes. How centromeric changes are linked to nuclear remodeling can now be quantitatively examined using the tools of this study.

Pairing of heterochromatin in response to cellular stress

We previously reported that exposure of human cells to DNA-damaging agents (X-rays and mitomycin C (MMC)) induces pairing of the homologous paracentromeric heterochromatin of chromosome 9 (9q12-13). Here, we show that UV irradiation and also heat shock treatment of human cells lead to similar effects. Since the various agents induce very different types and frequencies of damage to cellular constituents, the data suggest a general stress response as the underlying mechanism. Moreover, local UV irradiation experiments revealed that pairing of heterochromatin is an event that can be triggered without induction of DNA damage in the heterochromatic sequences. The repair deficient xeroderma pigmentosum cells (group F) previously shown to fail pairing after MMC displayed elevated pairing after heat shock treatment but not after UV exposure. Taken together, the present results indicate that pairing of heterochromatin following exposure to DNA-damaging agents is initiated by a general stress response and that the sensing of stress or the maintenance of the paired status of the heterochromatin might be dependent on DNA repair.