Modulation of SHBG binding to testosterone and estradiol by sex and morbid obesity

Hyperglycemia Inhibits Hepatic SHBG Synthesis Through the NGBR-AMPK-HNF4 Pathway in Rats with Polycystic Ovary Syndrome Induced by Letrozole in Combination with a High-Fat Diet

SCOPE

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is closely related to non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), and sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) is a glycoprotein produced by the liver. Hepatic lipogenesis inhibits hepatic SHBG synthesis, which leads to hyperandrogenemia and ovarian dysfunction in PCOS. Therefore, this study aims to characterize the mechanism whereby liver lipogenesis inhibits SHBG synthesis.

METHODS AND RESULTS

This study establishes a rat model of PCOS complicated by NAFLD using a high-fat diet in combination with letrozole and performs transcriptomic analysis of the liver. Transcriptomic analysis of the liver shows that the expression of neurite growth inhibitor-B receptor (NgBR), hepatocyte nuclear factor 4α (HNF4α), and SHBG is low. Meantime, HepG2 cells are treated with palmitic acid (PA) to model NAFLD in vitro, which causes decreases in the expression of NgBR, HNF4α, and SHBG. However, the expression of HNF4α and SHBG is restored by treatment with the AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) agonist AICAR.

CONCLUSIONS

NgBR regulates the expression of HNF4α by activating the AMPK signaling pathway, thereby affecting the synthesis of SHBG in the liver. Further mechanistic studies regarding the effect of liver fat on NGBR expression are warranted.

Gender Differences in the Prevalence and Clinical Correlates of Metabolic Syndrome in First-Episode and Drug-Naïve Patients With Major Depressive Disorder

OBJECTIVE

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a severe psychiatric symptom worldwide, and the coexistence of MDD with metabolic syndrome (MetS) is common in clinical practice. However, gender differences in comorbid MetS in first-episode and drug-naïve (FEDN) MDD patients have not been reported. Here, we explored potential gender differences in the prevalence and clinical correlates of comorbid MetS in FEDN MDD patients.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study of 1718 FEDN MDD patients was conducted. Demographic and clinical data were collected. The Hamilton Depression Scale (HAMD), Hamilton Anxiety Scale, and Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale positive subscale were used to evaluate depression, anxiety, and psychotic symptoms, respectively.

RESULTS

The prevalence of MetS was 1.645-fold higher in female MDD patients (38.50%) than in male patients (26.53%). Patients with MetS had higher HAMD score, Hamilton Anxiety Scale score, and Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale positive subscale score than patients without MetS (p values < .001). Furthermore, suicide attempts (male: odds ratio [OR] = 1.706, p = .034; female: OR = 1.639, p = .004) and HAMD score (male: OR = 1.251, p < .001; female: OR = 1.148, p < .001) were independently associated with MetS in male and female patients, whereas age of onset was independently associated with MetS only in female patients (OR = 1.744, p = .047).

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest significant gender differences in the prevalence and clinical correlates of comorbid MetS in FEDN MDD patients. Clinical variables (suicide attempts and HAMD scores) may be independently associated with MetS in MDD patients.

Causal relationship between gut microbiome and sex hormone-binding globulin: A bidirectional two-sample Mendelian randomization study

PROBLEM

Currently, there is a variety of evidence linking the gut microbiota to changes in sex hormones. In contrast, the causal relationship between SHBG, a carrier of sex hormones, and the gut microbiota is unclear.

METHOD OF STUDY

Bidirectional two-sample Mendelian randomization (MR) analysis was used to detect the causal effect between SHBG and the gut microbiome. Summary statistics of genome-wide association studies (GWASs) for the gut microbiome and SHBG were obtained from public datasets. Inverse-variance weighting (IVW), weighted median, weighted mode, MR-Egger and simple mode methods were used to operate the MR analysis. F-statistics and sensitivity analyses performed to evaluate bias and reliability.

RESULTS

When we set gut microbiome as exposure and SHBG as outcome, we identified nine causal relationships. In males, Coprobacter (PIVW = 2.01 × 10-6 ), Ruminococcus2 (PIVW = 3.40 × 10-5 ), Barnesiella (PIVW = 2.79 × 10-2 ), Actinobacteria (PIVW = 3.25 × 10-2 ) and Eubacterium fissicatena groups (PIVW = 3.64 × 10-2 ) were associated with lower SHBG levels; Alphaproteobacteria (PIVW = 1.61 × 10-2 ) is associated with higher SHBG levels. In females, Lachnoclostridium (PIVW = 9.75 × 10-3 ) and Defluviitaleaceae UCG011 (PIVW = 3.67 × 10-2 ) were associated with higher SHBG levels; Victivallaceae (PIVW = 2.23 × 10-2 ) was associated with lower SHBG levels. According to the results of reverse MR analysis, three significant causal effect of SHBG was found on gut microbiota. In males, Dorea (PIVW = 4.17 × 10-2 ) and Clostridiales (PIVW = 4.36 × 10-2 ) were associated with higher SHBG levels. In females, Lachnoclostridium (PIVW = 7.44 × 10-4 ) was associated with higherr SHBG levels. No signifcant heterogeneity of instrumental variables or horizontal pleiotropy was found in bidirectional two-sample MR analysis.

CONCLUSIONS

This study may provide new insights into the causal relationship between the gut microbiome and sex hormone-binding protein levels, as well as new treatment and prevention strategies for diseases such as abnormal changes in sex hormones.

Putative causal inference for the relationship between obesity and sex hormones in males: a bidirectional Mendelian randomization study

Background

Obesity is a chronic disease with a high prevalence rate and is an established risk factor for human health. Body mass index (BMI) is a common and primary indicator used in assessing obesity. This work aims to investigate the putative causal relationship among BMI, sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG), bioavailable testosterone (BioT), and estradiol levels.

Materials and Methods

We conducted a bidirectional Mendelian randomization study, using single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) strongly associated with BMI, SHBG, BioT, and estradiol as instrumental variables. All SNPs were identified from the genome-wide association study (GWAS) summary data of large sample studies recruiting more than 150,000 European adult male individuals. The inverse-variance-weighted (IVW) approach was used as a primary algorithm for putative causal estimation.

Results

Genetically predicted elevated BMI was associated with decreased SHBG (IVW, β = -0.103, 95% confidence interval [CI] [-0.113 to -0.092], P = 1.50 × 10^-77) and BioT levels (IVW, β = -0.139, 95% CI [-0.165 to -0.113], P = 9.54 × 10^-26) and high estradiol levels (IVW, β = 0.014, 95% CI [0.009-0.019], P = 2.19 × 10^-7). Increased SHBG levels were causally associated with low BMI (IVW, β = -0.051, 95% CI [-0.098 to -0.005], P = 0.030) and BioT (IVW, β = -0.126, 95% CI [-0.175 to -0.077], P = 5.97 × 10^-7) and high estradiol levels (IVW, β = 0.046, 95% CI [0.035-0.056], P = 6.51 × 10^-17). Conversely, no evidence of an effect of estradiol imbalance on SHBG levels (IVW, β = 1.035, 95% CI [-0.854 to 2.926], P = 0.283) and BMI (IVW, β = 0.091, 95% CI [-0.094 to 0.276], P = 0.336) was obtained. However, increased BioT levels were causally associated with lower SHBG levels (IVW, β = -0.044, 95% CI [-0.061 to -0.026], P = 8.76 × 10^-7), not BMI (IVW, β = -0.006, 95% CI [-0.035 to 0.023], P = 0.679).

Conclusions

The findings support a network putative causal relationship among BMI, SHBG, BioT, and estradiol. SHBG, BioT, and estradiol may partly mediate the effect of obesity on male health. Reasonably modulating BioT and estradiol, especially SHBG, facilitated the attenuation of the harmful effects of obesity on male health.

The Mediterranean Lifestyle to Contrast Low-Grade Inflammation Behavior in Cancer

A healthy diet and an active lifestyle are both effective ways to prevent, manage, and treat many diseases, including cancer. A healthy, well-balanced diet not only ensures that the body gets the right amount of nutrients to meet its needs, but it also lets the body get substances that protect against and/or prevent certain diseases. It is now clear that obesity is linked to long-term diseases such as heart disease, diabetes, and cancer. The main reasons for people being overweight or obese are having bad eating habits and not moving around enough. Maintaining weight in the normal range may be one of the best things to avoid cancer. It has been scientifically proven that those who perform regular physical activity are less likely to develop cancer than those who lead a sedentary lifestyle. Moving regularly not only helps to maintain a normal body weight, avoiding the effects that favor tumor growth in overweight subjects, but also makes the immune system more resistant by counteracting the growth of tumor cells. Physical activity also helps prevent cardiovascular and metabolic diseases. In this review, it is highlighted that the association between the Mediterranean diet and physical activity triggers biological mechanisms capable of counteracting the low-grade chronic inflammation found in patients with cancer. This assumes that healthy lifestyles associated with cancer therapies can improve the expectations and quality of life of cancer patients.

Independent and combined associations of urinary arsenic exposure and serum sex steroid hormones among 6-19-year old children and adolescents in NHANES 2013-2016

Arsenic exposure may disrupt sex steroid hormones, causing endocrine disruption. However, human evidence is limited and inconsistent, especially for children and adolescents. To evaluate the independent and combined associations between arsenic exposure and serum sex steroid hormones in children and adolescents, we conducted a cross-sectional analysis of data from 1063 participants aged 6 to 19 years from the 2013-2016 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). Three urine arsenic metabolites were examined, as well as three serum sex steroid hormones, estradiol (E₂), total testosterone (TT), and sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG). The ratio of TT to E₂ (TT/E₂) and the free androgen index (FAI) generated by TT/SHBG were also assessed. Linear regression, weighted quantile sum (WQS) regression, and Bayesian kernel machine regression (BKMR) were used to evaluate the associations of individual or arsenic metabolite combinations with sex steroid hormones by gender and age stratification. Positive associations were found between total arsenic and arsenic metabolites with TT, E₂, and FAI. In contrast, negative associations were found between arsenic metabolites and SHBG. Furthermore, there was an interaction after gender-age stratification between DMA and SHBG in female adolescents. Notably, based on the WQS and BKMR model results, the combined association of arsenic and its metabolites was positively associated with TT, E₂, and FAI and negatively associated with SHBG. Moreover, DMA and MMA dominated the highest weights among the arsenic metabolites. Overall, our results indicate that exposure to arsenic, either alone or in mixtures, may alter sex steroid hormone levels in children and adolescents.

Integrated Computational Approaches for Inhibiting Sex Hormone-Binding Globulin in Male Infertility by Screening Potent Phytochemicals

Male infertility is significantly influenced by the plasma-protein sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG). Male infertility, erectile dysfunction, prostate cancer, and several other male reproductive system diseases are all caused by reduced testosterone bioavailability due to its binding to SHBG. In this study, we have identified 345 phytochemicals from 200 literature reviews that potentially inhibit severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2. Only a few studies have been done using the SARS-CoV-2 inhibitors to identify the SHBG inhibitor, which is thought to be the main protein responsible for male infertility. In virtual-screening and molecular-docking experiments, cryptomisrine, dorsilurin E, and isoiguesterin were identified as potential SHBG inhibitors with binding affinities of -9.2, -9.0, and -8.8 kcal/mol, respectively. They were also found to have higher binding affinities than the control drug anastrozole (-7.0 kcal/mol). In addition to favorable pharmacological properties, these top three phytochemicals showed no adverse effects in pharmacokinetic evaluations. Several molecular dynamics simulation profiles' root-mean-square deviation, radius of gyration, root-mean-square fluctuation, hydrogen bonds, and solvent-accessible surface area supported the top three protein-ligand complexes' better firmness and stability than the control drug throughout the 100 ns simulation period. These combinatorial drug-design approaches indicate that these three phytochemicals could be developed as potential drugs to treat male infertility.

The role of hepatokines in NAFLD

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is not only a consequence of insulin resistance, but it is also an important cause of insulin resistance and major non-communicable diseases (NCDs). The close relationship of NAFLD with visceral obesity obscures the role of fatty liver from visceral adiposity as the main pathomechanism of insulin resistance and NCDs. To overcome this limitation, in analogy to the concept of adipokines, in 2008 we introduced the term hepatokines to describe the role of fetuin-A in metabolism. Since then, several other hepatokines were tested for their effects on metabolism. Here we address the dysregulation of hepatokines in people with NAFLD. Then, we discuss pathophysiological mechanisms of cardiometabolic diseases specifically related to NAFLD by focusing on hepatokine-related organ crosstalk. Finally, we propose how the determination of major hepatokines and adipokines can be used for pathomechanism-based clustering of insulin resistance in NAFLD and visceral obesity to better implement precision medicine in clinical practice.

Obesity and endocrine-related cancer: The important role of IGF-1

Obesity is increasingly becoming a global epidemic of concern and is considered a risk factor for several endocrine-related cancers. Moreover, obesity is associated with cancer development and poor prognosis. As a metabolic abnormality, obesity leads to a series of changes in insulin, IGF-1, sex hormones, IGFBPs, and adipokines. Among these factors, IGF-1 plays an important role in obesity-related endocrine cancers. This review describes the role of obesity in endocrine-related cancers, such as prostate cancer, breast cancer and pancreatic cancer, focusing on the mechanism of IGF-1 and the crosstalk with estrogen and adipokines. In addition, this review briefly introduces the current status of IGF-1R inhibitors in clinical practice and shows the prospect of IGF-1R inhibitors in combination with other anticancer drugs.

Adolescence is a sensitive period for acrylamide-induced sex hormone disruption: Evidence from NHANES populations and experimental mice

Acrylamide (AA) is widely contaminated in environment and diet. However, the association of AA and sex hormones has rarely been investigated, especially in adolescents, a period of particular susceptibility to sex hormone disruption. In this study, survey-weighted multivariate linear regression models were conducted to determine the association between AA Hb biomarkers [HbAA and glycidamide (HbGA)] and sex hormones [total testosterone (TT) and estradiol (E₂)] in a total of 3268 subjects from National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2013-2016 waves. Additionally, adult and pubertal mice were treated with AA to assess the effect of AA on sex hormones and to explore the potential mechanisms. Among all the subjects, significant negative patterns for HbGA and sex hormones were identified only in youths (6-19 years old), with the lowest β being - 0.53 (95% CI: -0.80 to -0.26) for TT in males and - 0.58 (95% CI: -0.93 to -0.23) for E₂ in females. Stratified analysis further revealed significant negative associations between HbGA and sex hormones in adolescents, with the lowest β being - 0.58 (95% CI: -1.02 to -0.14) for TT in males and - 0.54 (95% CI: -1.03 to -0.04) for E₂ in females, while there were no significant differences between children or late adolescents. In mice, the levels of TT and E₂ were dramatically reduced in AA-treated pubertal mice but not in adult mice. AA disturbed the expression of genes in the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis, induced apoptosis of hypothalamus-produced gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) neurons in the hypothalamus and reduced serum and hypothalamic GnRH levels in pubertal mice. Our study indicates AA could reduce TT and E₂ levels by injuring GnRH neurons and disrupting the HPG axis in puberty, which manifested as severe endocrine disruption on adolescents. Our findings reinforce the idea that adolescence is a vulnerable stage in AA-induced sex hormone disruption.

Body fatness associations with cancer: evidence from recent epidemiological studies and future directions

This narrative review highlights current evidence linking greater body fatness to risk of various cancers, with focus on evidence from recent large cohort studies and pooled analyses of cohort studies as well as Mendelian randomization studies (which utilized genetic variants associated with body mass index to debrief the causal effect of higher body fatness on cancer risk). This review also provides insights into the biological mechanisms underpinning the associations. Data from both observational and Mendelian randomization studies support the associations of higher body mass index with increased risk of many cancers with the strongest evidence for digestive system cancers, including esophageal, stomach, colorectal, liver, gallbladder, and pancreatic cancer, as well as kidney, endometrial, and ovarian (weak association) cancer. Evidence from observational studies suggests that greater body fatness has contrasting effects on breast cancer risk depending on menopausal status and on prostate cancer risk depending on disease stage. Experimental and Mendelian randomization studies indicate that adiponectin, insulin, and sex hormone pathways play an important role in mediating the link between body fatness and cancer risk. The possible role of specific factors and pathways, such as other adipocytokines and hormones and the gut microbiome in mediating the associations between greater body fatness and cancer risk is yet uncertain and needs investigation in future studies. With rising prevalence of overweight and obesity worldwide, the proportion of cancer caused by excess body fatness is expected to increase. There is thus an urgent need to identify efficient ways at the individual and societal level to improve diet and physical activity patterns to reduce the burden of obesity and accompanying comorbidities, including cancer.

Sex-specific differences in bone mineral density loss after sleeve gastrectomy

Background

Sleeve gastrectomy is an effective bariatric procedure; however, sleeve gastrectomy-related adverse skeletal outcomes have been increasingly reported. High levels of sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) have been documented to be a risk factor of bone mineral density (BMD) loss with different effects observed between sexes. The aim of this study was to identify sex-specific changes in BMD following sleeve gastrectomy and to evaluate the role of SHBG in this process.

Methods

This retrospective study included 19 middle-aged men and 30 non-menopausal women with obesity who underwent sleeve gastrectomy in China. Anthropometrics, bone turnover markers, calciotropic hormones, BMD, SHBG, and gonadal steroids were measured preoperatively and at 6 and 12 months postoperatively. Longitudinal changes in BMD, bone turnover markers and SHBG were compared between sexes by linear mixed models. Multiple stepwise regression analysis was used to identify the predictors of BMD loss at the investigated bone sites.

Results

Over the 12-month study period, total hip and femoral neck BMD decreased, while lumbar spine BMD remained largely unchanged in both sexes. Linear mixed models revealed significant sex × time interaction effects in total hip BMD and SHBG, showing that men had a significantly greater reduction in total hip BMD and less increase in SHBG after sleeve gastrectomy than women. In the multivariate model, SHBG was significantly associated with total hip BMD loss in men (adjusted β = −0.533, P = 0.019) but not women while total estrogen was significantly associated with total hip BMD loss in women (adjusted β = 0.508, P = 0.01) but not men.

Conclusion

Significant sex-specific BMD changes were observed after sleeve gastrectomy in the current study. Sleeve gastrectomy-related increase in SHBG may be a specific risk factor for total hip BMD loss in men. Our results indicate that sex-specific screening may be warranted to facilitate personalized postoperative bone care in this population.

Identifying molecular mediators of the relationship between body mass index and endometrial cancer risk: a Mendelian randomization analysis

BACKGROUND

Endometrial cancer is the most common gynaecological cancer in high-income countries. Elevated body mass index (BMI) is an established modifiable risk factor for this condition and is estimated to confer a larger effect on endometrial cancer risk than any other cancer site. However, the molecular mechanisms underpinning this association remain unclear. We used Mendelian randomization (MR) to evaluate the causal role of 14 molecular risk factors (hormonal, metabolic and inflammatory markers) in endometrial cancer risk. We then evaluated and quantified the potential mediating role of these molecular traits in the relationship between BMI and endometrial cancer using multivariable MR.

METHODS

Genetic instruments to proxy 14 molecular risk factors and BMI were constructed by identifying single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) reliably associated (P < 5.0 × 10-8) with each respective risk factor in previous genome-wide association studies (GWAS). Summary statistics for the association of these SNPs with overall and subtype-specific endometrial cancer risk (12,906 cases and 108,979 controls) were obtained from a GWAS meta-analysis of the Endometrial Cancer Association Consortium (ECAC), Epidemiology of Endometrial Cancer Consortium (E2C2) and UK Biobank. SNPs were combined into multi-allelic models and odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs) were generated using inverse-variance weighted random-effects models. The mediating roles of the molecular risk factors in the relationship between BMI and endometrial cancer were then estimated using multivariable MR.

RESULTS

In MR analyses, there was strong evidence that BMI (OR per standard deviation (SD) increase 1.88, 95% CI 1.69 to 2.09, P = 3.87 × 10-31), total testosterone (OR per inverse-normal transformed nmol/L increase 1.64, 95% CI 1.43 to 1.88, P = 1.71 × 10-12), bioavailable testosterone (OR per natural log transformed nmol/L increase: 1.46, 95% CI 1.29 to 1.65, P = 3.48 × 10-9), fasting insulin (OR per natural log transformed pmol/L increase: 3.93, 95% CI 2.29 to 6.74, P = 7.18 × 10-7) and sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG, OR per inverse-normal transformed nmol/L increase 0.71, 95% CI 0.59 to 0.85, P = 2.07 × 10-4) had a causal effect on endometrial cancer risk. Additionally, there was suggestive evidence that total serum cholesterol (OR per mg/dL increase 0.90, 95% CI 0.81 to 1.00, P = 4.01 × 10-2) had an effect on endometrial cancer risk. In mediation analysis, we found evidence for a mediating role of fasting insulin (19% total effect mediated, 95% CI 5 to 34%, P = 9.17 × 10-3), bioavailable testosterone (15% mediated, 95% CI 10 to 20%, P = 1.43 × 10-8) and SHBG (7% mediated, 95% CI 1 to 12%, P = 1.81 × 10-2) in the relationship between BMI and endometrial cancer risk.

CONCLUSIONS

Our comprehensive MR analysis provides insight into potential causal mechanisms linking BMI with endometrial cancer risk and suggests targeting of insulinemic and hormonal traits as a potential strategy for the prevention of endometrial cancer.

Circulating oestradiol determines liver lipid deposition in rats fed standard diets partially unbalanced with higher lipid or protein proportions

The ingestion of excess lipids often produces the accumulation of liver fat. The modulation of diet energy partition affects this process and other metabolic responses, and oestrogens and androgens are implied in this process. Ten-week-old male and female rats were fed with either standard rat chow (SD), SD enriched with coconut oil (high-fat diet, HF), SD enriched with protein (high-protein diet, HP) or a ‘cafeteria’ diet (CAF) for 1 month. HF and CAF diets provided the same lipid-derived percentage of energy (40 %), HP diet protein energy derived was twice (40 %) that of the SD. Animals were killed under anaesthesia and samples of blood and liver were obtained. Hepatic lipid content showed sex-related differences: TAG accumulation tended to increase in HF and CAF fed males. Cholesterol content was higher only in the CAF males. Plasma oestradiol in HF and HP males was higher than in CAF. Circulating cholesterol was inversely correlated with plasma oestradiol. These changes agreed with the differences in the expression of some enzymes related to lipid and energy metabolism, such as fatty acid synthetase or phosphoglycolate phosphatase. Oestrogen protective effects extend to males with ‘normal’ diets, that is, not unbalanced by either lipid or protein, but this protection was not enough against the CAF diet. Oestradiol seems to actively modulate the liver core of 2C-3C partition of energy substrates, regulating cholesterol deposition and lactate production.

Estrogens and the regulation of glucose metabolism

The main estrogens: estradiol, estrone, and their acyl-esters have been studied essentially related to their classical estrogenic and pharmacologic functions. However, their main effect in the body is probably the sustained control of core energy metabolism. Estrogen nuclear and membrane receptors show an extraordinary flexibility in the modulation of metabolic responses, and largely explain gender and age differences in energy metabolism: part of these mechanisms is already sufficiently known to justify both. With regard to energy, the estrogen molecular species act essentially through four key functions: (1) Facilitation of insulin secretion and control of glucose availability; (2) Modulation of energy partition, favoring the use of lipid as the main energy substrate when more available than carbohydrates; (3) Functional protection through antioxidant mechanisms; and (4) Central effects (largely through neural modulation) on whole body energy management. Analyzing the different actions of estrone, estradiol and their acyl esters, a tentative classification based on structure/effects has been postulated. Either separately or as a group, estrogens provide a comprehensive explanation that not all their quite diverse actions are related solely to specific molecules. As a group, they constitute a powerful synergic action complex. In consequence, estrogens may be considered wardens of energy homeostasis.

Biomediators in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome and Cardiovascular Risk

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is extremely heterogeneous in terms of clinical manifestations. The variability of the syndrome's phenotype is derived from the genetic and molecular heterogeneity, with a great deal of environmental factors that may have long-term health consequences, such as metabolic and cardiovascular (CV) diseases. There is no doubt that women with PCOS suffer from metabolic complications more than their age-matched counterparts in the general population and at an earlier age. Obesity, low steroid hormone-binding globulin (SHBG), hyperandrogenemia, insulin resistance, and compensatory hyperinsulinemia are biomediators and early predictors of metabolic complications in PCOS. Doubts remain about the real risk of CV diseases in PCOS and the molecular mechanisms at the basis of CV complications. Based on that assumption, this review will present the available evidence on the potential implications of some biomediators, in particular, hyperandrogenism, estrogen-progesterone imbalance, insulin resistance, and low SHBG, in the processes leading to CV disease in PCOS, with the final aim to propose a more accurate CV risk assessment.

Serum Levels of Androgens, Estrogens, and Sex Hormone Binding Globulin and Risk of Primary Gastric Cancer in Chinese Men: A Nested Case-Control Study

Gastric cancer shows a strong male predominance, and sex steroid hormones have been hypothesized to explain this sex disparity. Previous studies examining the associations between sex hormones and sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG) and risk of gastric cancer come primarily from western populations and additional studies in diverse populations will help us better understand the association. We performed a nested case-control study in Linxian Nutrition Intervention Trials cohorts to evaluate the associations among Chinese men, where we had sufficient cases to perform a well-powered study. Using radioimmunoassays and immunoassays, we quantitated androgens, estrogens, and SHBG in baseline serum from 328 men that developed noncardia gastric cancer and matched controls. We used multivariable unconditional logistic regression to calculate ORs and 95% confidence intervals (CI) and explored interactions with body mass index (BMI), age, alcohol drinking, smoking, and follow-up time. Subjects with SHBG in the highest quartile, as compared with those in the lowest quartile, had a significantly increased risk of gastric cancer (OR = 1.87; 95% CI, 1.01-3.44). We found some evidence for associations of sex steroid hormones in men with lower BMI. Our study found a novel association suggesting that higher serum concentrations of SHBG may be associated with risk of gastric cancer in men. We found no overall associations with sex hormones themselves, but future studies should expand the scope of these studies to include women and further explore whether BMI modifies a potential association. PREVENTION RELEVANCE: It was the first study to investigate the association of gastric cancer with prediagnostic sex steroid hormones and SHBG in an Asian male population. Although there were no overall associations for sex steroid hormone concentrations, higher concentrations of SHBG was associated with increased risk of noncardia gastric cancer.

Sex and Gender Disparities in Melanoma

Worldwide, the total incidence of cutaneous melanoma is higher in men than in women, with some differences related to ethnicity and age and, above all, sex and gender. Differences exist in respect to the anatomic localization of melanoma, in that it is more frequent on the trunk in men and on the lower limbs in women. A debated issue is if-and to what extent-melanoma development can be attributed to gender-specific behaviors or to biologically intrinsic differences. In the search for factors responsible for the divergences, a pivotal role of sex hormones has been observed, although conflicting results indicate the involvement of other mechanisms. The presence on the X chromosome of numerous miRNAs and coding genes playing immunological roles represents another important factor, whose relevance can be even increased by the incomplete X chromosome random inactivation. Considering the known advantages of the female immune system, a different cancer immune surveillance efficacy was suggested to explain some sex disparities. Indeed, the complexity of this picture emerged when the recently developed immunotherapies unexpectedly showed better improvements in men than in women. Altogether, these data support the necessity of further studies, which consider enrolling a balanced number of men and women in clinical trials to better understand the differences and obtain actual gender-equitable healthcare.

Body mass index predicts aldosterone production in hypertensive postmenopausal women

Hypertension is a common clinical problem, and increased aldosterone is the most prevalent underlying characteristic. Related works have shown exciting results on the effects of various conditions on aldosterone content, but the correlation between aldosterone levels and body mass index (BMI) in premenopausal women has not yet been investigated. We herein report a cross-sectional analysis aimed to determine whether BMI is proportional to plasma aldosterone concentration in premenopausal and postmenopausal hypertensive women. The analysis of consecutive admitted female patients with hypertension revealed potential relationships among plasma aldosterone concentration, plasma renin activity, oestrogen, and BMI. It should be noted that plasma aldosterone concentration was significantly correlated with BMI (p < .05) in postmenopausal women, and both plasma aldosterone and oestrogen levels were decreased in premenopausal women. These findings suggest that BMI has a positive impact on aldosterone in postmenopausal hypertensive women but not in premenopausal women. Additionally, we predict that endogenous oestrogen may be an important indication of aldosterone changes in premenopausal hypertensive women of different body weights.

Validity of free testosterone calculation in pregnant women

Objective Increased maternal testosterone concentration during pregnancy may affect the fetus. Therefore it is clinically relevant to have a quick and reliable method to determine free testosterone levels. Current calculators for free testosterone are suspected to perform poorly during pregnancy due to suggested competition between high levels of estradiol and free (bio-active) testosterone for sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) binding. Therefore, it is claimed that reliable calculation of free testosterone concentration is not possible. However, recent evidence on SHBG-binding sites questions the estradiol effect on the testosterone-SHBG binding during pregnancy. In this study, we investigated whether the free testosterone concentration can be calculated in pregnant women. Design and methods Free testosterone was measured with a specially developed equilibrium dialysis method combined with liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Free testosterone was also calculated with the formulas of Vermeulen et al. and Ross et al. Results Total and free testosterone measured in healthy men and women were in good agreement with earlier reports. In pregnant women, total testosterone values were higher than in non-pregnant women, whereas free testosterone values were comparable. Calculated free testosterone levels in pregnant women were highly correlated, but marginally higher, compared to measured free testosterone levels. Conclusions We developed an equilibrium dialysis-LC-MS/MS method for the measurement of free testosterone in the low range of pregnant and non-pregnant women. Although during pregnancy total testosterone is increased, this is not the case for free testosterone. The free testosterone formulas perform well in pregnant women.

New Biomarkers to Evaluate Hyperandrogenemic Women and Hypogonadal Men

Androgens can have variable effects on men and women. Women may be evaluated for androgen excess for several reasons. Typically, young premenopausal women present with clinical symptoms of hirsutism, alopecia, irregular menses, and/or infertility. The most common cause of these symptoms is polycystic ovary syndrome. After menopause, even though ovaries stop producing estrogen, they continue to produce androgen, and women can have new onset of hirsutism and alopecia. Laboratory evaluation involves measurement of the major ovarian and adrenal androgens. In women, age, phase of the menstrual cycle, menopausal status, obesity, metabolic health, and sex hormone-binding proteins significantly affect total-androgen levels and complicate interpretation. This review will summarize the clinically relevant evaluation of hyperandrogenemia at different life stages in women and highlight pitfalls associated with interpretation of commonly used hormone measurements. Hypogonadism in men is a clinical syndrome characterized by low testosterone and/or low sperm count. Symptoms of hypogonadism include decreased libido, erectile dysfunction, decreased vitality, decreased muscle mass, increased adiposity, depressed mood, osteopenia, and osteoporosis. Hypogonadism is a common disorder in aging men. Hypogonadism is observed rarely in young boys and adolescent men. Based on the defects in testes, hypothalamus, and/or pituitary glands, hypogonadism can be broadly classified as primary, secondary, and mixed hypogonadism. Diagnosis of hypogonadism in men is based on symptoms and laboratory measurement. Biomarkers in use/development for hypogonadism are classified as hormonal, Leydig and Sertoli cell function, semen, genetic/RNA, metabolic, microbiome, and muscle mass-related. These biomarkers are useful for diagnosis of hypogonadism, determination of the type of hypogonadism, identification of the underlying causes, and therapeutic assessment. Measurement of serum testosterone is usually the most important single diagnostic test for male hypogonadism. Patients with primary hypogonadism have low testosterone and increased luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). Patients with secondary hypogonadism have low testosterone and low or inappropriately normal LH and FSH. This review provides an overview of hypogonadism in men and a detailed discussion of biomarkers currently in use and in development for diagnosis thereof.

Molecular phenomics and metagenomics of hepatic steatosis in non-diabetic obese women

Hepatic steatosis is a multifactorial condition that is often observed in obese patients and is a prelude to non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Here, we combine shotgun sequencing of fecal metagenomes with molecular phenomics (hepatic transcriptome and plasma and urine metabolomes) in two well-characterized cohorts of morbidly obese women recruited to the FLORINASH study. We reveal molecular networks linking the gut microbiome and the host phenome to hepatic steatosis. Patients with steatosis have low microbial gene richness and increased genetic potential for the processing of dietary lipids and endotoxin biosynthesis (notably from Proteobacteria), hepatic inflammation and dysregulation of aromatic and branched-chain amino acid metabolism. We demonstrated that fecal microbiota transplants and chronic treatment with phenylacetic acid, a microbial product of aromatic amino acid metabolism, successfully trigger steatosis and branched-chain amino acid metabolism. Molecular phenomic signatures were predictive (area under the curve = 87%) and consistent with the gut microbiome having an effect on the steatosis phenome (>75% shared variation) and, therefore, actionable via microbiome-based therapies.

Sex hormone levels and change in left ventricular structure among men and post-menopausal women: The Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA)

OBJECTIVE

Sex hormone (SH) levels may contribute to sex differences in the risk of heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF). We examined the associations of SH levels with left ventricular mass (LVM) and mass (M):volume (V) ratio, which are risk markers for HFpEF.

STUDY DESIGN

We studied 1941 post-menopausal women and 2221 men, aged 45-84 years, participating in the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA). Serum SH levels, cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and ejection fraction (EF) ≥50% had been recorded at baseline (2000-2002). Of these participants, 2810 underwent repeat MRI at Exam 5 (2010-2012). Stratified by sex, linear mixed-effect models were used to test associations between SH and sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG) level [per 1 SD greater log-transformed (SH)] with baseline and change in LV structure. Models were adjusted for age, race/ethnicity, center, height, weight, education, physical activity and smoking, and, in women, for hormone therapy and years since menopause.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

LVM and M:V ratio.

RESULTS

After a median of 9.1 years, higher free testosterone levels were independently associated with a modest increase in LVM (g/yr) in women [0.05 (95% CI 0.01, 0.10)] and men [0.16 (0.03, 0.28)], while higher SHBG levels were associated with less LVM change (g/yr) in women [-0.07 (-0.13, -0.01)] and men [-0.15 (-0.27, -0.02)]. In men, higher dehydroepiandrosterone and estradiol levels were associated with increased LVM. Among women, free testosterone levels were positively and SHBG levels inversely associated with change in M:V ratio.

CONCLUSION

A more androgenic profile (higher free testosterone and lower SHBG levels) is associated with a greater increase in LVM in men and women and greater increase in M:V ratio in women over the course of 9 years.