Androgen excess and diagnostic steroid biomarkers for nonclassic 21-hydroxylase deficiency without cosyntropin stimulation

Presentation and Care for Children with Peripheral Precocious Puberty

Peripheral precocious puberty (PPP) refers to the early onset of sexual maturation that is independent of central nervous system control. The extensive differential diagnosis includes congenital and acquired causes. Presenting features depend on which class of sex steroids is involved, and diagnosis rests on hormonal and, if indicated, imaging and/or genetic studies. Effective treatment exists for nearly all causes of PPP. Ongoing research will advance our therapeutic armamentarium and understanding of the pathophysiologic basis of these conditions.

Serum 21-Deoxycortisol for Diagnosis of Nonclassic Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia in Women With Androgen Excess

CONTEXT

Nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia (NCCAH) requires exclusion before diagnosing polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). Increasing use of liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) necessitates revision of immunoassay-based criteria for NCCAH. Measurement of 21-deoxycortisol (21DF) may simplify the diagnosis of heterozygosity (HTZ), the presence of 1 affected CYP21A2 allele, which currently relies on complex molecular studies.

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to determine LC-MS/MS-specific criteria for NCCAH and HTZ and compare the diagnostic accuracy of 21DF and 17-hydroxyprogesterone (17OHP).

METHODS

A cross-sectional study involving 99 hyperandrogenic females was performed. We identified females who had undergone both a synacthen stimulation test (SST) and CYP21A2 genotyping from 2010 to 2017, and prospectively recruited females referred for an SST to investigate hyperandrogenic symptoms from 2017 to 2021. Steroids were compared between genetically confirmed NCCAH, HTZ, and PCOS. Optimal 17OHP and 21DF thresholds for HTZ and NCCAH were determined by receiver operating characteristic analysis.

RESULTS

Basal 17OHP, stimulated 17OHP, and 21DF were measured in 99, 85, and 42 participants, respectively. Optimal thresholds for NCCAH were 3.0 nmol/L and 20.7 nmol/L for basal and stimulated 17OHP, respectively. Basal and stimulated 21DF thresholds of 0.31 nmol/L and 13.3 nmol/L provided 100% sensitivity with specificities of 96.8% and 100% for NCCAH, respectively. Diagnostic thresholds for HTZ of 8.0 nmol/L, 1.0 nmol/L, and 13.6 for stimulated 17OHP, 21DF, and the ratio (21DF + 17OHP)/cortisol each provided 100% sensitivity with specificities of 80.4%, 90.5%, and 85.0%, respectively.

CONCLUSION

LC-MS/MS-specific 17OHP thresholds for NCCAH are lower than those based on immunoassay. LC-MS/MS-quantified 17OHP and 21DF accurately discriminate HTZ and NCCAH from PCOS.

The use of liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry in newborn screening for congenital adrenal hyperplasia: improvements and future perspectives

Newborn screening for congenital adrenal hyperplasia using 17-hydroxyprogesterone by immunoassay remains controversial despite screening been available for almost 40 years. Screening is confounded by poor immunoassay specificity, fetal adrenal physiology, stress, and illness which can result in a large number of false positive screening tests. Screening programmes apply higher screening thresholds based on co-variates such as birthweight or gestational age but the false positive rate using immunoassay remains high. Mass spectrometry was first applied to newborn screening for congenital adrenal hyperplasia over 15 years ago. Elevated 17-hydroxprogesterone by immunoassay can be retested with a specific liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry assay that may include additional steroid markers. Laboratories register with quality assurance programme providers to ensure accurate steroid measurements. This has led to improvements in screening but there are additional costs and added laboratory workload. The search for novel steroid markers may inform further improvements to screening. Studies have shown that 11-oxygenated androgens are elevated in untreated patients and that the adrenal steroidogenesis backdoor pathway is more active in babies with congenital adrenal hyperplasia. There is continual interest in 21-deoxycortisol, a specific marker of 21-hydroxylase deficiency. The measurement of androgenic steroids and their precursors by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry in bloodspots may inform improvements for screening, diagnosis, and treatment monitoring. In this review, we describe how liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry has improved newborn screening for congenital adrenal hyperplasia and explore how future developments may inform further improvements to screening and diagnosis.

Interpretation of Steroid Biomarkers in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency and Their Use in Disease Management

The most common form of congenital adrenal hyperplasia is 21-hydroxylase deficiency (21OHD), which in the classic (severe) form occurs in roughly 1:16 000 newborns worldwide. Lifelong treatment consists of replacing cortisol and aldosterone deficiencies, and supraphysiological dosing schedules are typically employed to simultaneously attenuate production of adrenal-derived androgens. Glucocorticoid titration in 21OHD is challenging as it must balance the consequences of androgen excess vs those from chronic high glucocorticoid exposure, which are further complicated by interindividual variability in cortisol kinetics and glucocorticoid sensitivity. Clinical assessment and biochemical parameters are both used to guide therapy, but the specific purpose and goals of each biomarker vary with age and clinical context. Here we review the approach to medication titration for children and adults with classic 21OHD, with an emphasis on how to interpret adrenal biomarker values in guiding this process. In parallel, we illustrate how an understanding of the pathophysiologic and pharmacologic principles can be used to avoid and to correct complications of this disease and consequences of its management using existing treatment options.

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia: New biomarkers and adult treatments

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is a genetic disease caused by an enzyme deficiency interrupting adrenal steroidogenesis. It most frequently involves 21-hydroxylase, which induces adrenal insufficiency with hyperandrogenism. Restoring hormonal balance is difficult with glucocorticoids, which are the gold-standard treatment. Strict normalization of conventional biomarkers (17-hydroxyprogesterone and delta-4 androstenedione) is often obtained at the cost of iatrogenic hypercortisolism. Optimizing the management of these patients first involves using more specific biomarkers of adrenal steroidogenesis in difficult situations, and secondly using therapeutics targeting the induced hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis disorder. 11-oxygenated androgens are candidates for biochemical monitoring of Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), in particular 11-ketotestosterone. Numerous new therapeutic agents are currently being explored, the prime goal being to reduce glucocorticoid exposure, as no strategy can fully replace it at present. They can be divided into 3 categories. The first includes "more physiological" hydrocortisone administration (modified-release hydrocortisone and continuous subcutaneous infusion of hydrocortisone hemisuccinate); the second includes corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) and adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) receptor antagonists and anti-ACTH antibodies; and the third includes steroidogenesis inhibitors. Finally, experiments on gene and cell therapies suggest the possibility of lasting remission or even cure in the future.

Combining metabolomics and machine learning models as a tool to distinguish non-classic 21-hydroxylase deficiency from polycystic ovary syndrome without adrenocorticotropic hormone testing

STUDY QUESTION

Can a combination of metabolomic signature and machine learning (ML) models distinguish nonclassic 21-hydroxylase deficiency (NC21OHD) from polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) without adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) testing?

SUMMARY ANSWER

A single sampling methodology may be an alternative to the dynamic ACTH test in order to exclude the diagnosis of NC21OHD in the presence of a clinical hyperandrogenic presentation at any time of the menstrual cycle.

WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY

The clinical presentation of patients with NC21OHD is similar with that for other disorders of androgen excess. Currently, cosyntropin stimulation remains the gold standard diagnosis of NC21OHD.

STUDY DESIGN, SIZE, DURATION

The study was designed using a bicentric recruitment: an internal training set included 19 women with NC21OHD and 19 controls used for developing the model; a test set included 17 NC21OHD, 72 controls and 266 PCOS patients used to evaluate the performance of the diagnostic strategy thanks to an ML approach.

PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS, SETTING, METHODS

Fifteen steroid species were measured in serum by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). This set of 15 steroids (defined as 'steroidome') used to map the steroid biosynthesis pathway was the input for our models.

MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE

From a single sample, modeling involving metabolic pathway mapping by profiling 15 circulating steroids allowed us to identify perfectly NC21OHD from a confounding PCOS population. The constructed model using baseline LC-MS/MS-acquired steroid fingerprinting successfully excluded all 17 NC21OHDs (sensitivity and specificity of 100%) from 266 PCOS from an external testing cohort of originally 549 women, without the use of ACTH testing. Blood sampling timing during the menstrual cycle phase did not impact the efficiency of our model.

LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTION

The main limitations were the use of a restricted and fully prospective cohort as well as an analytical issue, as not all laboratories are equipped with mass spectrometers able to routinely measure this panel of 15 steroids. Moreover, the robustness of our model needs to be established with a larger prospective study for definitive validation in clinical practice.

WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS

This tool makes it possible to propose a new semiology for the management of hyperandrogenism. The model presents better diagnostic performances compared to the current reference strategy. The management of patients may be facilitated by limiting the use of ACTH tests. Finally, the modeling process allows a classification of steroid contributions to rationalize the biomarker approach and highlight some underlying pathophysiological mechanisms.

STUDY FUNDING/COMPETING INTEREST(S)

This study was supported by 'Agence Française de Lutte contre le dopage' and DIM Région Ile de France. This study was supported by the French institutional PHRC 2010-AOR10032 funding source and APHP. All authors declare no competing financial interests.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

N/A.

Report from the HarmoSter study: inter-laboratory comparison of LC-MS/MS measurements of corticosterone, 11-deoxycortisol and cortisone

OBJECTIVES

Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) panels that include glucocorticoid-related steroids are increasingly used to characterize and diagnose adrenal cortical diseases. Limited information is currently available about reproducibility of these measurements among laboratories. The aim of the study was to compare LC-MS/MS measurements of corticosterone, 11-deoxycortisol and cortisone at eight European centers and assess the performance after unification of calibration.

METHODS

Seventy-eight patient samples and commercial calibrators were measured twice by laboratory-specific procedures. Results were obtained according to in-house and external calibration. We evaluated intra-laboratory and inter-laboratory imprecision, regression and agreement against performance specifications derived from 11-deoxycortisol biological variation.

RESULTS

Intra-laboratory CVs ranged between 3.3 and 7.7%, 3.3 and 11.8% and 2.7 and 12.8% for corticosterone, 11-deoxycortisol and cortisone, with 1, 4 and 3 laboratories often exceeding the maximum allowable imprecision (MAI), respectively. Median inter-laboratory CVs were 10.0, 10.7 and 6.2%, with 38.5, 50.7 and 2.6% cases exceeding the MAI for corticosterone, 11-deoxycortisol and cortisone, respectively. Median laboratory bias vs. all laboratory-medians ranged from -5.6 to 12.3% for corticosterone, -14.6 to 12.4% for 11-deoxycortisol and -4.0 to 6.5% for cortisone, with few cases exceeding the total allowable error. Modest deviations were found in regression equations among most laboratories. External calibration did not improve 11-deoxycortisol and worsened corticosterone and cortisone inter-laboratory comparability.

CONCLUSIONS

Method imprecision was variable. Inter-laboratory performance was reasonably good. However, cases with imprecision and total error above the acceptable limits were apparent for corticosterone and 11-deoxycortisol. Variability did not depend on calibration but apparently on imprecision, accuracy and specificity of individual methods. Tools for improving selectivity and accuracy are required to improve harmonization.

A Multiclassifier System to Identify and Subtype Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia Based on Circulating Steroid Hormones

CONTEXT

Measurement of plasma steroids is necessary for diagnosis of congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH). We sought to establish an efficient strategy for detection and subtyping of CAH with a machine-learning algorithm.

METHODS

Clinical phenotype and genetic testing were used to provide CAH diagnosis and subtype. We profiled 13 major steroid hormones by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. A multiclassifier system was established to distinguish 11β-hydroxylase deficiency (11βOHD), 17α-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase deficiency (17OHD), and 21α-hydroxylase deficiency (21OHD) in a discovery cohort (n = 226). It was then validated in an independent cohort (n = 111) and finally applied in a perspective cohort of 256 patients. The diagnostic performance on the basis of area under receiver operating characteristic curves (AUCs) was evaluated.

RESULTS

A cascade logistic regression model, we named the "Steroidogenesis Score", was able to discriminate the 3 most common CAH subtypes: 11βOHD, 17OHD, and 21OHD. In the perspective application cohort, the steroidogenesis score had a high diagnostic accuracy for all 3 subtypes, 11βOHD (AUC, 0.994; 95% CI, 0.983-1.000), 17OHD (AUC, 0.993; 95% CI, 0.985-1.000), and 21OHD (AUC, 0.979; 95% CI, 0.964-0.994). For nonclassic 21OHD patients, the tool presented with significantly higher sensitivity compared with measurement of basal 17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17OHP) (0.973 vs 0.840, P = 0.005) and was not inferior to measurement of basal vs stimulated 17OHP (0.973 vs 0.947, P = 0.681).

CONCLUSIONS

The steroidogenesis score was biochemically interpretable and showed high accuracy in identifying CAH patients, especially for nonclassic 21OHD patients, thus offering a standardized approach to diagnose and subtype CAH.

Analysis of a pitfall in congenital adrenal hyperplasia newborn screening: evidence of maternal use of corticoids detected on dried blood spot

Neonatal screening for congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) faces many specific challenges. It must be done using a performant analytical approach that combines sensitivity and specificity to capture the potential causes of mortality during the first week of life, such as salt wasting and glucocorticoid deficiency. Here, we confirm that maternal inhaled corticosteroid intake during pregnancy is a possible cause of missed CAH diagnosis. Thanks to liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) analysis, we were able to quantify endogenous steroid metabolites and also detect the presence of exogenous steroids in the dried blood spot of a newborn. Adding LC-MS/MS analysis as second-tier test, especially one that includes both 17-hydroxyprogesterone and 21-deoxycortisol measurements, would probably improve CAH diagnosis. In familial neonatal screening one could also look for maternal corticosteroid therapies that are hidden to prevent false-negative tests.

Maternal 11-Ketoandrostenedione Rises Through Normal Pregnancy and Is the Dominant 11-Oxygenated Androgen in Cord Blood

CONTEXT

Adrenal-derived 11-oxygenated androgens (11oAs) are known important contributors to human physiology and disease but have not been studied in pregnancy.

OBJECTIVE

We characterize 11oAs in normal human pregnancy and neonatal period and assess the ratios between 11oAs and compare with ratios of other steroids that undergo placental metabolism.

DESIGN

Prospective cohort study, 2010-2018.

SETTING

Academic institution.

PATIENTS

Pairs of pregnant women and newborns (n = 120) were studied. Inclusion criteria were maternal age between 18 and 42 years old, spontaneous singleton pregnancies, and intention to deliver at University of Michigan.

INTERVENTION

Maternal venous blood was collected during first trimester and at term. Neonatal cord blood was collected following delivery. Steroids were measured via liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Levels of 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4), 11-ketoandrostenedione (11KA4), 11β-hydroxytestosterone, and 11-ketotestoterone (11KT) in maternal first trimester, maternal term, and neonatal cord blood were compared. 11OHA4-to-11KA4 ratios were correlated with cortisol-to-cortisone ratios.

RESULTS

Dominant 11oAs in pregnancy and the cord blood are 11OHA4 and 11KA4, compared to 11OHA4 and 11KT in adult men and nonpregnant women. We found a rise in 11oA concentrations, particularly 11KA4, from first to third trimester. In cord blood, the concentration of 11KA4 exceeded those of both 11OHA4 and 11KT, reflecting placental 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 (11βHSD2) and 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (17βHSD2) activities, respectively. 11OHA4-to-11KA4 ratios are concordant with cortisol-to-cortisone ratios across all maternal and fetal compartments, reflecting placental 11βHSD2 activity.

CONCLUSIONS

Placental 17βHSD2 activity defends the fetus against the androgen 11KT. Our normative values may be used in future studies of 11oAs in complicated pregnancies.

Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia-Current Insights in Pathophysiology, Diagnostics, and Management

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is a group of autosomal recessive disorders affecting cortisol biosynthesis. Reduced activity of an enzyme required for cortisol production leads to chronic overstimulation of the adrenal cortex and accumulation of precursors proximal to the blocked enzymatic step. The most common form of CAH is caused by steroid 21-hydroxylase deficiency due to mutations in CYP21A2. Since the last publication summarizing CAH in Endocrine Reviews in 2000, there have been numerous new developments. These include more detailed understanding of steroidogenic pathways, refinements in neonatal screening, improved diagnostic measurements utilizing chromatography and mass spectrometry coupled with steroid profiling, and improved genotyping methods. Clinical trials of alternative medications and modes of delivery have been recently completed or are under way. Genetic and cell-based treatments are being explored. A large body of data concerning long-term outcomes in patients affected by CAH, including psychosexual well-being, has been enhanced by the establishment of disease registries. This review provides the reader with current insights in CAH with special attention to these new developments.

Production of 11-Oxygenated Androgens by Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors

CONTEXT

Testicular adrenal rest tumors (TART) are a common complication in males with classic 21-hydroxylase deficiency (21OHD). TART are likely to contribute to the androgen excess in 21OHD patients, but a direct quantification of steroidogenesis from these tumors has not been yet done.

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to define the production of 11-oxygenated 19-carbon (11oxC19) steroids by TART.

METHODS

Using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry, steroids were measured in left (n = 7) and right (n = 4) spermatic vein and simultaneously drawn peripheral blood (n = 7) samples from 7 men with 21OHD and TART. For comparison, we also measured the peripheral steroid concentrations in 5 adrenalectomized patients and 12 age- and BMI-matched controls. Additionally, steroids were quantified in TART cell- and adrenal cell-conditioned medium, with and without adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) stimulation.

RESULTS

Compared with peripheral blood from 21OHD patients with TART, the spermatic vein samples displayed the highest gradient for 11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHT; 96-fold) of the 11oxC19 steroids, followed by 11-ketotestosterone (47-fold) and 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4; 29-fold), suggesting production of these steroids in TART. TART cells produced higher levels of testosterone and lower levels of A4 and 11OHA4 after ACTH stimulation compared with adrenal cells, indicating ACTH-induced production of testosterone in TART.

CONCLUSION

In patients with 21OHD, TART produce 11oxC19 steroids, but in different proportions than the adrenals. The very high ratio of 11OHT in spermatic vs peripheral vein blood suggests the 11-hydroxylation of testosterone by TART, and the in vitro results indicate that this metabolism is ACTH-sensitive.

24-Hour Profiles of 11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids and Δ5-Steroid Sulfates during Oral and Continuous Subcutaneous Glucocorticoids in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency

Background

Optimal management of androgen excess in 21-hydroxylase deficiency (21OHD) remains challenging. 11-oxygenated-C19 steroids (11-oxyandrogens) have emerged as promising biomarkers of disease control, but data regarding their response to treatment are lacking.

Objective

To compare the dynamic response of a broad set of steroids to both conventional oral glucocorticoids (OG) and circadian cortisol replacement via continuous subcutaneous hydrocortisone infusion (CSHI) in patients with 21OHD based on 24-hour serial sampling.

Participants and Methods

We studied 8 adults (5 women), ages 19-43 years, with poorly controlled classic 21OHD who participated in a single-center open-label phase I-II study comparing OG with CSHI. We used mass spectrometry to measure 15 steroids (including 11-oxyandrogens and Δ5 steroid sulfates) in serum samples obtained every 2 h for 24 h after 3 months of stable OG, and 6 months into ongoing CSHI.

Results

In response to OG therapy, androstenedione, testosterone (T), and their four 11-oxyandrogen metabolites:11β-hydroxyandrostenedione, 11-ketoandrostenedione, 11β-hydroxytestosterone and 11-ketotestosterone (11KT) demonstrated a delayed decline in serum concentrations, and they achieved a nadir between 0100-0300. Unlike DHEAS, which had little diurnal variation, pregnenolone sulfate (PregS) and 17-hydoxypregnenolone sulfate peaked in early morning and declined progressively throughout the day. CSHI dampened the early ACTH and androgen rise, allowing the ACTH-driven adrenal steroids to return closer to baseline before mid-day. 11KT concentrations displayed the most consistent difference between OG and CSHI across all time segments. While T was lowered by CSHI as compared with OG in women, T increased in men, suggesting an improvement of the testicular function in parallel with 21OHD control in men.

Conclusion

11-oxyandrogens and PregS could serve as biomarkers of disease control in 21OHD. The development of normative data for these promising novel biomarkers must consider their diurnal variability.

Reassessment of predictive values of ACTH-stimulated serum 21-deoxycortisol and 17-hydroxyprogesterone to identify CYP21A2 heterozygote carriers and nonclassic subjects

INTRODUCTION

Heterozygotes (HZs) for 21-hydroxylase deficiency (21OHD) are highly prevalent, ranging from 1:60 to 1:11 for classic and nonclassic (NC) forms, respectively. Detection of HZ and asymptomatic NC by CYP21A2 genotyping is valuable for genetic counselling, but costly, complex and narrowly available. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)-stimulated serum 17-hydroxyprogesterone (17P) and 21-deoxycortisol (21DF) discriminate 21OHD phenotypes effectively, notably if measured simultaneously by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS).

OBJECTIVE

This study was performed to reassess former LC-MS/MS-defined post-ACTH 21DF, 17P and cortisol (F) cutoffs in family members at risk for 21OHD.

DESIGN AND PATIENTS

Prospective study in which we screened 58 asymptomatic relatives from families with 21OHD patients and compared post-ACTH steroid phenotypes with subsequent genotypes.

RESULTS

Post-ACTH 21DF, 17P, F and (21DF + 17P)/F ratio segregate NC, HZ and wild-type (WT) phenotypes (subsequently genotyped) with some overlap. New receiver operating characteristic curve-defined cutoffs for post-ACTH 21DF, 17P and (21DF + 17P)/F ratio are 60 ng/dl, 310 ng/dl and 12 (unitless). Twenty-six of 33 HZ and all 6 NC (82.1%) had post-ACTH 21DF > 60 and 17P > 310 ng/dl, whereas 17/19 WT (89.5%) had values below cutoffs. Post-ACTH 21DF and 17P had a strong positive correlation (r = .9558; p < .001). A (21DF + 17P)/F ratio > 12 correctly identified 36 of 39 HZ plus NC (92.3% sensitivity) with 84.2% specificity (16 of 19 WT). Given the high frequency of 21OHD HZ, the negative prediction of ratio values below 12 excludes heterozygosity in 99.8% and 99.1% for classic and NC mutations, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Reassessed ACTH-stimulated 21DF and 17P cutoffs by LC-MS/MS (60 and 310 ng/dl, respectively) correctly recognised 82.5% HZ plus NC, but combined precursor-to-product ratio ([21DF + 17P]/F) cutoff of 12 was superior, identifying 92.3% HZ plus NC. Since one WT subject is an outlier (potential HZ), these values would be somewhat better reinforcing their utility for screening asymptomatic relatives at risk for 21OHD.

The way toward adulthood for females with nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia

Females with NC21OHD may present as asymptomatic or develop a wide range of androgen excess expression. Clinical manifestations may become evident in childhood and adolescence and include premature pubarche, precocious puberty, acne, hirsutism, and menstrual disorders or present later in life as oligo-ovulation and infertility. Glucocorticoids have been the mainstay of treatment as they regulate excess androgen expression by dampening ACTH activation. Their use requires a careful dose monitoring to avoid overtreatment and subsequently the risk of obesity, type 2 diabetes, dyslipidemia, hypertension, and osteoporosis. Women with NC21OHD need regular follow up throughout their life in order to overcome the physical and psychological burden of hyperandrogenism.

Nonclassic Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia: What Do Endocrinologists Need to Know?

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia encompasses a group of autosomal recessive defects in cortisol biosynthesis, and 21-hydroxylase deficiency accounts for 95% of such cases. Non-classic 21-hydroxylase deficiency is due to partial enzymatic defects, which present with normal cortisol synthesis, but excessive production of adrenal androgens, including 11-oxygenated androgens. Non-classic 21-hydroxylase deficiency is relatively common, and its phenotype resembles closely that of polycystic ovary syndrome. This review focuses primarily on non-classic 21-hydroxylase deficiency, its clinical features, diagnosis, and management.