1
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Klughammer N, Barth A, Dekker M, Fragasso A, Onck PR, Dekker C. Diameter dependence of transport through nuclear pore complex mimics studied using optical nanopores. eLife 2024; 12:RP87174. [PMID: 38376900 PMCID: PMC10942607 DOI: 10.7554/elife.87174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/21/2024] Open
Abstract
The nuclear pore complex (NPC) regulates the selective transport of large biomolecules through the nuclear envelope. As a model system for nuclear transport, we construct NPC mimics by functionalizing the pore walls of freestanding palladium zero-mode waveguides with the FG-nucleoporin Nsp1. This approach enables the measurement of single-molecule translocations through individual pores using optical detection. We probe the selectivity of Nsp1-coated pores by quantitatively comparing the translocation rates of the nuclear transport receptor Kap95 to the inert probe BSA over a wide range of pore sizes from 35 nm to 160 nm. Pores below 55 ± 5 nm show significant selectivity that gradually decreases for larger pores. This finding is corroborated by coarse-grained molecular dynamics simulations of the Nsp1 mesh within the pore, which suggest that leakage of BSA occurs by diffusion through transient openings within the dynamic mesh. Furthermore, we experimentally observe a modulation of the BSA permeation when varying the concentration of Kap95. The results demonstrate the potential of single-molecule fluorescence measurements on biomimetic NPCs to elucidate the principles of nuclear transport.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nils Klughammer
- Department of Bionanoscience, Kavli Institute of Nanoscience, Delft University of TechnologyDelftNetherlands
| | - Anders Barth
- Department of Bionanoscience, Kavli Institute of Nanoscience, Delft University of TechnologyDelftNetherlands
| | - Maurice Dekker
- Zernike Institute for Advanced Materials, University of GroningenGroningenNetherlands
| | - Alessio Fragasso
- Department of Bionanoscience, Kavli Institute of Nanoscience, Delft University of TechnologyDelftNetherlands
| | - Patrick R Onck
- Zernike Institute for Advanced Materials, University of GroningenGroningenNetherlands
| | - Cees Dekker
- Department of Bionanoscience, Kavli Institute of Nanoscience, Delft University of TechnologyDelftNetherlands
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2
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Kozai T, Fernandez-Martinez J, van Eeuwen T, Gallardo P, Kapinos LE, Mazur A, Zhang W, Tempkin J, Panatala R, Delgado-Izquierdo M, Raveh B, Sali A, Chait BT, Veenhoff LM, Rout MP, Lim RYH. Dynamic molecular mechanism of the nuclear pore complex permeability barrier. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.03.31.535055. [PMID: 37066338 PMCID: PMC10103940 DOI: 10.1101/2023.03.31.535055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/29/2023]
Abstract
Nuclear pore complexes (NPCs) mediate nucleocytoplasmic transport of specific macromolecules while impeding the exchange of unsolicited material. However, key aspects of this gating mechanism remain controversial. To address this issue, we determined the nanoscopic behavior of the permeability barrier directly within yeast S. cerevisiae NPCs at transport-relevant timescales. We show that the large intrinsically disordered domains of phenylalanine-glycine repeat nucleoporins (FG Nups) exhibit highly dynamic fluctuations to create transient voids in the permeability barrier that continuously shape-shift and reseal, resembling a radial polymer brush. Together with cargo-carrying transport factors the FG domains form a feature called the central plug, which is also highly dynamic. Remarkably, NPC mutants with longer FG domains show interweaving meshwork-like behavior that attenuates nucleocytoplasmic transport in vivo. Importantly, the bona fide nanoscale NPC behaviors and morphologies are not recapitulated by in vitro FG domain hydrogels. NPCs also exclude self-assembling FG domain condensates in vivo, thereby indicating that the permeability barrier is not generated by a self-assembling phase condensate, but rather is largely a polymer brush, organized by the NPC scaffold, whose dynamic gating selectivity is strongly enhanced by the presence of transport factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toshiya Kozai
- Biozentrum, University of Basel, Switzerland
- Swiss Nanoscience Institute, University of Basel, Switzerland
| | - Javier Fernandez-Martinez
- Laboratory of Cellular and Structural Biology, The Rockefeller University, New York, U.S.A
- Ikerbasque, Basque Foundation for Science, Bilbao, Spain
- Instituto Biofisika (UPV/EHU, CSIC), University of the Basque Country, 48940, Leioa, Spain
| | - Trevor van Eeuwen
- Laboratory of Cellular and Structural Biology, The Rockefeller University, New York, U.S.A
| | - Paola Gallardo
- European Research Institute for the Biology of Ageing, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Netherlands
| | | | - Adam Mazur
- Biozentrum, University of Basel, Switzerland
| | - Wenzhu Zhang
- Laboratory of Mass Spectrometry and Gaseous Ion Chemistry, The Rockefeller University, New York, U.S.A
| | - Jeremy Tempkin
- Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, U.S.A. Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA. Quantitative Biosciences Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | | | | | - Barak Raveh
- School of Computer Science and Engineering, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Andrej Sali
- Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, U.S.A. Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA. Quantitative Biosciences Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Brian T. Chait
- Laboratory of Mass Spectrometry and Gaseous Ion Chemistry, The Rockefeller University, New York, U.S.A
| | - Liesbeth M. Veenhoff
- European Research Institute for the Biology of Ageing, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Michael P. Rout
- Laboratory of Cellular and Structural Biology, The Rockefeller University, New York, U.S.A
| | - Roderick Y. H. Lim
- Biozentrum, University of Basel, Switzerland
- Swiss Nanoscience Institute, University of Basel, Switzerland
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3
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Dubey AK, Kumar P, Mandal D, Ravichandiran V, Singh SK. An introduction to dynamic nucleoporins in Leishmania species: Novel targets for tropical-therapeutics. J Parasit Dis 2022; 46:1176-1191. [PMID: 36457769 PMCID: PMC9606170 DOI: 10.1007/s12639-022-01515-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2022] [Accepted: 06/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
As an ailment, leishmaniasis is still an incessant challenge in neglected tropical diseases and neglected infections of poverty worldwide. At present, the diagnosis and treatment to combat Leishmania tropical infections are not substantial remedies and require advanced & specific research. Therefore, there is a need for a potential novel target to overcome established medicament modalities' limitations in pathogenicity. In this review, we proposed a few ab initio findings in nucleoporins of nuclear pore complex in Leishmania sp. concerning other infectious protists. So, through structural analysis and dynamics studies, we hypothesize the nuclear pore molecular machinery & functionality. The gatekeepers Nups, export of mRNA, mitotic spindle formation are salient features in cellular mechanics and this is regulated by dynamic nucleoporins. Here, diverse studies suggest that Nup93/NIC96, Nup155/Nup144, Mlp1/Mlp2/Tpr of Leishmania Species can be a picked out marker for diagnostic, immune-modulation, and novel drug targets. In silico prediction of nucleoporin-functional interactors such as NUP54/57, RNA helicase, Ubiquitin-protein ligase, Exportin 1, putative T-lymphocyte triggering factor, and 9 uncharacterized proteins suggest few more noble targets. The novel drug targeting to importins/exportins of Leishmania sp. and defining mechanism of Leptomycin-B, SINE compounds, Curcumins, Selinexor can be an arc-light in therapeutics. The essence of the review in Leishmania's nucleoporins is to refocus our research on noble molecular targets for tropical therapeutics. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12639-022-01515-0.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amit Kumar Dubey
- Department of Biotechnology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Hajipur, Vaishali, Bihar 844102 India
- Parasite Immunology Lab, Microbiology Department, Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR)-Rajendra Memorial Research Institute of Medical Sciences (RMRIMS), Patna, Bihar 800007 India
| | - Prakash Kumar
- Department of Biotechnology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Hajipur, Vaishali, Bihar 844102 India
| | - Debabrata Mandal
- Department of Biotechnology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Hajipur, Vaishali, Bihar 844102 India
| | - V. Ravichandiran
- Department of Biotechnology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Hajipur, Vaishali, Bihar 844102 India
| | - Shubhankar Kumar Singh
- Parasite Immunology Lab, Microbiology Department, Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR)-Rajendra Memorial Research Institute of Medical Sciences (RMRIMS), Patna, Bihar 800007 India
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4
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A designer FG-Nup that reconstitutes the selective transport barrier of the nuclear pore complex. Nat Commun 2021; 12:2010. [PMID: 33790297 PMCID: PMC8012357 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-22293-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2019] [Accepted: 03/01/2021] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Nuclear Pore Complexes (NPCs) regulate bidirectional transport between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. Intrinsically disordered FG-Nups line the NPC lumen and form a selective barrier, where transport of most proteins is inhibited whereas specific transporter proteins freely pass. The mechanism underlying selective transport through the NPC is still debated. Here, we reconstitute the selective behaviour of the NPC bottom-up by introducing a rationally designed artificial FG-Nup that mimics natural Nups. Using QCM-D, we measure selective binding of the artificial FG-Nup brushes to the transport receptor Kap95 over cytosolic proteins such as BSA. Solid-state nanopores with the artificial FG-Nups lining their inner walls support fast translocation of Kap95 while blocking BSA, thus demonstrating selectivity. Coarse-grained molecular dynamics simulations highlight the formation of a selective meshwork with densities comparable to native NPCs. Our findings show that simple design rules can recapitulate the selective behaviour of native FG-Nups and demonstrate that no specific spacer sequence nor a spatial segregation of different FG-motif types are needed to create selective NPCs.
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Zhu D, Adebisi WA, Ahmad F, Sethupathy S, Danso B, Sun J. Recent Development of Extremophilic Bacteria and Their Application in Biorefinery. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2020; 8:483. [PMID: 32596215 PMCID: PMC7303364 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2020.00483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2020] [Accepted: 04/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The biorefining technology for biofuels and chemicals from lignocellulosic biomass has made great progress in the world. However, mobilization of laboratory research toward industrial setup needs to meet a series of criteria, including the selection of appropriate pretreatment technology, breakthrough in enzyme screening, pathway optimization, and production technology, etc. Extremophiles play an important role in biorefinery by providing novel metabolic pathways and catalytically stable/robust enzymes that are able to act as biocatalysts under harsh industrial conditions on their own. This review summarizes the potential application of thermophilic, psychrophilic alkaliphilic, acidophilic, and halophilic bacteria and extremozymes in the pretreatment, saccharification, fermentation, and lignin valorization process. Besides, the latest studies on the engineering bacteria of extremophiles using metabolic engineering and synthetic biology technologies for high-efficiency biofuel production are also introduced. Furthermore, this review explores the comprehensive application potential of extremophiles and extremozymes in biorefinery, which is partly due to their specificity and efficiency, and points out the necessity of accelerating the commercialization of extremozymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daochen Zhu
- Biofuels Institute, School of the Environment and Safety Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Culture Collection and Application, Guangdong Open Laboratory of Applied Microbiology, Guangdong Institute of Microbiology, Guangzhou, China
| | - Wasiu Adewale Adebisi
- Biofuels Institute, School of the Environment and Safety Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
| | - Fiaz Ahmad
- Biofuels Institute, School of the Environment and Safety Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
| | - Sivasamy Sethupathy
- Biofuels Institute, School of the Environment and Safety Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
| | - Blessing Danso
- Biofuels Institute, School of the Environment and Safety Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
| | - Jianzhong Sun
- Biofuels Institute, School of the Environment and Safety Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
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6
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Abstract
The nuclear pore complex (NPC) serves as the sole bidirectional gateway of macromolecules in and out of the nucleus. Owing to its size and complexity (∼1,000 protein subunits, ∼110 MDa in humans), the NPC has remained one of the foremost challenges for structure determination. Structural studies have now provided atomic-resolution crystal structures of most nucleoporins. The acquisition of these structures, combined with biochemical reconstitution experiments, cross-linking mass spectrometry, and cryo-electron tomography, has facilitated the determination of the near-atomic overall architecture of the symmetric core of the human, fungal, and algal NPCs. Here, we discuss the insights gained from these new advances and outstanding issues regarding NPC structure and function. The powerful combination of bottom-up and top-down approaches toward determining the structure of the NPC offers a paradigm for uncovering the architectures of other complex biological machines to near-atomic resolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel H Lin
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, USA;
| | - André Hoelz
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, USA;
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7
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Manhas S, Ma L, Measday V. The yeast Ty1 retrotransposon requires components of the nuclear pore complex for transcription and genomic integration. Nucleic Acids Res 2018; 46:3552-3578. [PMID: 29514267 PMCID: PMC5909446 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gky109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2016] [Revised: 02/01/2018] [Accepted: 02/26/2018] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Nuclear pore complexes (NPCs) orchestrate cargo between the cytoplasm and nucleus and regulate chromatin organization. NPC proteins, or nucleoporins (Nups), are required for human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) gene expression and genomic integration of viral DNA. We utilize the Ty1 retrotransposon of Saccharomyces cerevisiae (S. cerevisiae) to study retroviral integration because retrotransposons are the progenitors of retroviruses and have conserved integrase (IN) enzymes. Ty1-IN targets Ty1 elements into the genome upstream of RNA polymerase (Pol) III transcribed genes such as transfer RNA (tRNA) genes. Evidence that S. cerevisiae tRNA genes are recruited to NPCs prompted our investigation of a functional role for the NPC in Ty1 targeting into the genome. We find that Ty1 mobility is reduced in multiple Nup mutants that cannot be accounted for by defects in Ty1 gene expression, cDNA production or Ty1-IN nuclear entry. Instead, we find that Ty1 insertion upstream of tRNA genes is impaired. We also identify Nup mutants with wild type Ty1 mobility but impaired Ty1 targeting. The NPC nuclear basket, which interacts with chromatin, is required for both Ty1 expression and nucleosome targeting. Deletion of components of the NPC nuclear basket causes mis-targeting of Ty1 elements to the ends of chromosomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Savrina Manhas
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Life Sciences Centre, Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Lina Ma
- Wine Research Centre, 2205 East Mall, Faculty of Land and Food Systems, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Vivien Measday
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Life Sciences Centre, Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z3, Canada
- Wine Research Centre, 2205 East Mall, Faculty of Land and Food Systems, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada
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8
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Onischenko E, Tang JH, Andersen KR, Knockenhauer KE, Vallotton P, Derrer CP, Kralt A, Mugler CF, Chan LY, Schwartz TU, Weis K. Natively Unfolded FG Repeats Stabilize the Structure of the Nuclear Pore Complex. Cell 2017; 171:904-917.e19. [PMID: 29033133 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2017.09.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2017] [Revised: 08/25/2017] [Accepted: 09/19/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Nuclear pore complexes (NPCs) are ∼100 MDa transport channels assembled from multiple copies of ∼30 nucleoporins (Nups). One-third of these Nups contain phenylalanine-glycine (FG)-rich repeats, forming a diffusion barrier, which is selectively permeable for nuclear transport receptors that interact with these repeats. Here, we identify an additional function of FG repeats in the structure and biogenesis of the yeast NPC. We demonstrate that GLFG-containing FG repeats directly bind to multiple scaffold Nups in vitro and act as NPC-targeting determinants in vivo. Furthermore, we show that the GLFG repeats of Nup116 function in a redundant manner with Nup188, a nonessential scaffold Nup, to stabilize critical interactions within the NPC scaffold needed for late steps of NPC assembly. Our results reveal a previously unanticipated structural role for natively unfolded GLFG repeats as Velcro to link NPC subcomplexes and thus add a new layer of connections to current models of the NPC architecture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evgeny Onischenko
- Department of Biology, Institute of Biochemistry, Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich, Otto-Stern-Weg 3, CH-8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Jeffrey H Tang
- Department of Biology, Institute of Biochemistry, Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich, Otto-Stern-Weg 3, CH-8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Kasper R Andersen
- Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Kevin E Knockenhauer
- Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Pascal Vallotton
- Department of Biology, Institute of Biochemistry, Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich, Otto-Stern-Weg 3, CH-8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Carina P Derrer
- Department of Biology, Institute of Biochemistry, Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich, Otto-Stern-Weg 3, CH-8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Annemarie Kralt
- Department of Biology, Institute of Biochemistry, Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich, Otto-Stern-Weg 3, CH-8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Christopher F Mugler
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Leon Y Chan
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Thomas U Schwartz
- Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Karsten Weis
- Department of Biology, Institute of Biochemistry, Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich, Otto-Stern-Weg 3, CH-8093 Zurich, Switzerland.
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9
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Timney BL, Raveh B, Mironska R, Trivedi JM, Kim SJ, Russel D, Wente SR, Sali A, Rout MP. Simple rules for passive diffusion through the nuclear pore complex. J Cell Biol 2016; 215:57-76. [PMID: 27697925 PMCID: PMC5057280 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.201601004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 277] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2016] [Accepted: 09/06/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Passive macromolecular diffusion through nuclear pore complexes is thought to decrease dramatically beyond ∼40 kD. Using time-resolved fluorescence microscopy and Brownian dynamics simulations, Timney et al. show that this barrier is in fact much softer, decreasing along a continuum. Passive macromolecular diffusion through nuclear pore complexes (NPCs) is thought to decrease dramatically beyond a 30–60-kD size threshold. Using thousands of independent time-resolved fluorescence microscopy measurements in vivo, we show that the NPC lacks such a firm size threshold; instead, it forms a soft barrier to passive diffusion that intensifies gradually with increasing molecular mass in both the wild-type and mutant strains with various subsets of phenylalanine-glycine (FG) domains and different levels of baseline passive permeability. Brownian dynamics simulations replicate these findings and indicate that the soft barrier results from the highly dynamic FG repeat domains and the diffusing macromolecules mutually constraining and competing for available volume in the interior of the NPC, setting up entropic repulsion forces. We found that FG domains with exceptionally high net charge and low hydropathy near the cytoplasmic end of the central channel contribute more strongly to obstruction of passive diffusion than to facilitated transport, revealing a compartmentalized functional arrangement within the NPC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin L Timney
- Laboratory of Cellular and Structural Biology, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065
| | - Barak Raveh
- Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences, California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158 Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158
| | - Roxana Mironska
- Laboratory of Cellular and Structural Biology, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065
| | - Jill M Trivedi
- Laboratory of Cellular and Structural Biology, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065
| | - Seung Joong Kim
- Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences, California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158 Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158
| | - Daniel Russel
- Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences, California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158 Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158
| | - Susan R Wente
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37232
| | - Andrej Sali
- Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences, California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158 Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158
| | - Michael P Rout
- Laboratory of Cellular and Structural Biology, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065
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