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Sharkey KA, Mawe GM. The enteric nervous system. Physiol Rev 2023; 103:1487-1564. [PMID: 36521049 PMCID: PMC9970663 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00018.2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 58.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2022] [Revised: 12/12/2022] [Accepted: 12/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Of all the organ systems in the body, the gastrointestinal tract is the most complicated in terms of the numbers of structures involved, each with different functions, and the numbers and types of signaling molecules utilized. The digestion of food and absorption of nutrients, electrolytes, and water occurs in a hostile luminal environment that contains a large and diverse microbiota. At the core of regulatory control of the digestive and defensive functions of the gastrointestinal tract is the enteric nervous system (ENS), a complex system of neurons and glia in the gut wall. In this review, we discuss 1) the intrinsic neural control of gut functions involved in digestion and 2) how the ENS interacts with the immune system, gut microbiota, and epithelium to maintain mucosal defense and barrier function. We highlight developments that have revolutionized our understanding of the physiology and pathophysiology of enteric neural control. These include a new understanding of the molecular architecture of the ENS, the organization and function of enteric motor circuits, and the roles of enteric glia. We explore the transduction of luminal stimuli by enteroendocrine cells, the regulation of intestinal barrier function by enteric neurons and glia, local immune control by the ENS, and the role of the gut microbiota in regulating the structure and function of the ENS. Multifunctional enteric neurons work together with enteric glial cells, macrophages, interstitial cells, and enteroendocrine cells integrating an array of signals to initiate outputs that are precisely regulated in space and time to control digestion and intestinal homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keith A Sharkey
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute and Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Gary M Mawe
- Department of Neurological Sciences, Larner College of Medicine, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont
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2
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Vicentini FA, Keenan CM, Wallace LE, Woods C, Cavin JB, Flockton AR, Macklin WB, Belkind-Gerson J, Hirota SA, Sharkey KA. Intestinal microbiota shapes gut physiology and regulates enteric neurons and glia. MICROBIOME 2021; 9:210. [PMID: 34702353 PMCID: PMC8549243 DOI: 10.1186/s40168-021-01165-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 43.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2021] [Accepted: 09/15/2021] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The intestinal microbiota plays an important role in regulating gastrointestinal (GI) physiology in part through interactions with the enteric nervous system (ENS). Alterations in the gut microbiome frequently occur together with disturbances in enteric neural control in pathophysiological conditions. However, the mechanisms by which the microbiota regulates GI function and the structure of the ENS are incompletely understood. Using a mouse model of antibiotic (Abx)-induced bacterial depletion, we sought to determine the molecular mechanisms of microbial regulation of intestinal function and the integrity of the ENS. Spontaneous reconstitution of the Abx-depleted microbiota was used to assess the plasticity of structure and function of the GI tract and ENS. Microbiota-dependent molecular mechanisms of ENS neuronal survival and neurogenesis were also assessed. RESULTS Adult male and female Abx-treated mice exhibited alterations in GI structure and function, including a longer small intestine, slower transit time, increased carbachol-stimulated ion secretion, and increased intestinal permeability. These alterations were accompanied by the loss of enteric neurons in the ileum and proximal colon in both submucosal and myenteric plexuses. A reduction in the number of enteric glia was only observed in the ileal myenteric plexus. Recovery of the microbiota restored intestinal function and stimulated enteric neurogenesis leading to increases in the number of enteric glia and neurons. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) supplementation enhanced neuronal survival alongside bacterial depletion, but had no effect on neuronal recovery once the Abx-induced neuronal loss was established. In contrast, short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) were able to restore neuronal numbers after Abx-induced neuronal loss, demonstrating that SCFA stimulate enteric neurogenesis in vivo. CONCLUSIONS Our results demonstrate a role for the gut microbiota in regulating the structure and function of the GI tract in a sex-independent manner. Moreover, the microbiota is essential for the maintenance of ENS integrity, by regulating enteric neuronal survival and promoting neurogenesis. Molecular determinants of the microbiota, LPS and SCFA, regulate enteric neuronal survival, while SCFA also stimulates neurogenesis. Our data reveal new insights into the role of the gut microbiota that could lead to therapeutic developments for the treatment of enteric neuropathies. Video abstract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando A. Vicentini
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1 Canada
- Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1 Canada
- Inflammation Research Network, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1 Canada
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1 Canada
| | - Catherine M. Keenan
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1 Canada
- Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1 Canada
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1 Canada
| | - Laurie E. Wallace
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1 Canada
- Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1 Canada
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1 Canada
| | - Crystal Woods
- Department of Pediatrics, Section of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition, University of Colorado, Aurora, CO 80045 USA
| | - Jean-Baptiste Cavin
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1 Canada
- Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1 Canada
- Inflammation Research Network, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1 Canada
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1 Canada
| | - Amanda R. Flockton
- Department of Pediatrics, Section of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition, University of Colorado, Aurora, CO 80045 USA
| | - Wendy B. Macklin
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO 80045 USA
| | - Jaime Belkind-Gerson
- Department of Pediatrics, Section of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition, University of Colorado, Aurora, CO 80045 USA
- Neurogastroenterology and Motility Program, Digestive Health Institute, Children’s Hospital Colorado, Aurora, CO 80045 USA
| | - Simon A. Hirota
- Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1 Canada
- Inflammation Research Network, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1 Canada
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1 Canada
- Alberta Children’s Hospital Research Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1 Canada
| | - Keith A. Sharkey
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1 Canada
- Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1 Canada
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1 Canada
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3
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Shah PA, Park CJ, Shaughnessy MP, Cowles RA. Serotonin as a Mitogen in the Gastrointestinal Tract: Revisiting a Familiar Molecule in a New Role. Cell Mol Gastroenterol Hepatol 2021; 12:1093-1104. [PMID: 34022423 PMCID: PMC8350061 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcmgh.2021.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2020] [Revised: 05/11/2021] [Accepted: 05/12/2021] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Serotonin signaling is ubiquitous in the gastrointestinal (GI) system, where it acts as a neurotransmitter in the enteric nervous system (ENS) and influences intestinal motility and inflammation. Since its discovery, serotonin has been linked to cellular proliferation in several types of tissues, including vascular smooth muscle, neurons, and hepatocytes. Activation of serotonin receptors on distinct cell types has been shown to induce well-known intracellular proliferation pathways. In the GI tract, potentiation of serotonin signaling results in enhanced intestinal epithelial proliferation, and decreased injury from intestinal inflammation. Furthermore, activation of the type 4 serotonin receptor on enteric neurons leads to neurogenesis and neuroprotection in the setting of intestinal injury. It is not surprising that the mitogenic properties of serotonin are pronounced within the GI tract, where enterochromaffin cells in the intestinal epithelium produce 90% of the body's serotonin; however, these proliferative effects are attributed to increased serotonin signaling within the ENS compartment as opposed to the intestinal mucosa, which are functionally and chemically separate by virtue of the distinct tryptophan hydroxylase enzyme isoforms involved in serotonin synthesis. The exact mechanism by which serotonergic neurons in the ENS lead to intestinal proliferation are not known, but the activation of muscarinic receptors on intestinal crypt cells indicate that cholinergic signaling is essential to this signaling pathway. Further understanding of serotonin's role in mucosal and enteric nervous system mitogenesis may aid in harnessing serotonin signaling for therapeutic benefit in many GI diseases, including inflammatory bowel disease, malabsorptive conditions, and cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pooja A Shah
- Division of Pediatric Surgery, Department of Surgery, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut
| | - Christine J Park
- Division of Pediatric Surgery, Department of Surgery, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut
| | - Matthew P Shaughnessy
- Division of Pediatric Surgery, Department of Surgery, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut
| | - Robert A Cowles
- Division of Pediatric Surgery, Department of Surgery, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut.
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Ocampo L, Coello M, Aquino I. Comparative Efficacy of the Prokinetic Effects of Cisapride and Tegaserod in Equines. J Equine Vet Sci 2020; 92:103179. [PMID: 32797801 DOI: 10.1016/j.jevs.2020.103179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2020] [Revised: 05/23/2020] [Accepted: 06/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to compare the effects of cisapride and tegaserod on intestinal smooth muscle activity in equines. Efficacy was evaluated through measurement of gastrointestinal transit time, bowel movements per day, stool weight, and bowel sounds. Drug safety was evaluated via heart rate, respiratory rate, and rectal temperature. Records were obtained throughout three periods: a control phase without treatment, a period of cisapride administration at a dose of 0.22 mg/kg, and a period of tegaserod treatment at a dose of 0.27 mg/kg. Gastrointestinal transit time, bowel movements per day, and stool weight were significantly improved on administration of both cisapride and tegaserod, as compared with the control phase. With tegaserod administration, gastrointestinal transit time accelerates more than to cisapride administration; however, no significant difference was seen in bowel movements per day and stool weight. In terms of heart rate, respiratory rate, and rectal temperature, no significant variations were seen between the three sample phases. Because of the above findings, tegaserod can be considered an effective stimulant of intestinal smooth muscle, accelerating gastrointestinal transit time in healthy horses and representing a potential therapeutic agent similar to cisapride.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis Ocampo
- Physiology and Pharmacology Department. School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, National Autonomous University of Mexico, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - María Coello
- Department of Medicine, Surgery, and Husbandry for Horses. School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, National Autonomous University of Mexico, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Itzcoatl Aquino
- Physiology and Pharmacology Department. School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, National Autonomous University of Mexico, Mexico City, Mexico.
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Ricard C, Arroyo ED, He CX, Portera-Cailliau C, Lepousez G, Canepari M, Fiole D. Two-photon probes for in vivo multicolor microscopy of the structure and signals of brain cells. Brain Struct Funct 2018; 223:3011-3043. [PMID: 29748872 PMCID: PMC6119111 DOI: 10.1007/s00429-018-1678-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2017] [Accepted: 05/03/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Imaging the brain of living laboratory animals at a microscopic scale can be achieved by two-photon microscopy thanks to the high penetrability and low phototoxicity of the excitation wavelengths used. However, knowledge of the two-photon spectral properties of the myriad fluorescent probes is generally scarce and, for many, non-existent. In addition, the use of different measurement units in published reports further hinders the design of a comprehensive imaging experiment. In this review, we compile and homogenize the two-photon spectral properties of 280 fluorescent probes. We provide practical data, including the wavelengths for optimal two-photon excitation, the peak values of two-photon action cross section or molecular brightness, and the emission ranges. Beyond the spectroscopic description of these fluorophores, we discuss their binding to biological targets. This specificity allows in vivo imaging of cells, their processes, and even organelles and other subcellular structures in the brain. In addition to probes that monitor endogenous cell metabolism, studies of healthy and diseased brain benefit from the specific binding of certain probes to pathology-specific features, ranging from amyloid-β plaques to the autofluorescence of certain antibiotics. A special focus is placed on functional in vivo imaging using two-photon probes that sense specific ions or membrane potential, and that may be combined with optogenetic actuators. Being closely linked to their use, we examine the different routes of intravital delivery of these fluorescent probes according to the target. Finally, we discuss different approaches, strategies, and prerequisites for two-photon multicolor experiments in the brains of living laboratory animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clément Ricard
- Brain Physiology Laboratory, CNRS UMR 8118, 75006, Paris, France
- Faculté de Sciences Fondamentales et Biomédicales, Université Paris Descartes, PRES Sorbonne Paris Cité, 75006, Paris, France
- Fédération de Recherche en Neurosciences FR 3636, Paris, 75006, France
| | - Erica D Arroyo
- Department of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, USA
| | - Cynthia X He
- Department of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, USA
| | - Carlos Portera-Cailliau
- Department of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, USA
- Department of Neurobiology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, USA
| | - Gabriel Lepousez
- Unité Perception et Mémoire, Département de Neuroscience, Institut Pasteur, 25 rue du Docteur Roux, 75724, Paris Cedex 15, France
| | - Marco Canepari
- Laboratory for Interdisciplinary Physics, UMR 5588 CNRS and Université Grenoble Alpes, 38402, Saint Martin d'Hères, France
- Laboratories of Excellence, Ion Channel Science and Therapeutics, Grenoble, France
- Institut National de la Santé et Recherche Médicale (INSERM), Grenoble, France
| | - Daniel Fiole
- Unité Biothérapies anti-Infectieuses et Immunité, Département des Maladies Infectieuses, Institut de Recherche Biomédicale des Armées, BP 73, 91223, Brétigny-sur-Orge cedex, France.
- Human Histopathology and Animal Models, Infection and Epidemiology Department, Institut Pasteur, 28 rue du docteur Roux, 75725, Paris Cedex 15, France.
- ESRF-The European Synchrotron, 38043, Grenoble cedex, France.
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6
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Qiao H, Wang YB, Gao YM, Bi LL. Prucalopride inhibits the glioma cells proliferation and induces autophagy via AKT-mTOR pathway. BMC Neurol 2018; 18:80. [PMID: 29866060 PMCID: PMC5985575 DOI: 10.1186/s12883-018-1083-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2018] [Accepted: 05/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Backgrounds Glioma is the most fatal primary brain glioma in central nervous system mainly attributed to its high invasion. Prucalopride, a Serotonin-4 (5-HT4) receptor agonist, has been reported to regulate neurodevelopment. This study aimed to investigate the influence of the Prucalopride on glioma cells and unveil underlying mechanism. Methods In this study, glioma cells proliferation was evaluated by Cell counting kit-8 (CCK8). Wound healing and transwell assay were used to test cellular migration and invasion. Flow cytometry was utilized to determine cellular apoptosis rate. Apoptosis related markers, autophagy markers, and protein kinase B (AKT)-mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway key molecules were detected using western blot assay. Results As a result, the proliferation, migration and invasiveness of glioma cells were impaired by Prucalopride treatment, the apoptosis rate of glioma cells was enhanced by Prucalopride stimulation, accompanied by the increased pro-apoptosis proteins Bax and Cleaved caspase-3 and decreased anti-apoptosis protein Bcl-2. Prucalopride significantly promoted autophagy by increased expression level of Beclin 1 and LC3-II, while decreased expression level of p62. Prucalopride administration resulted in obvious inhibitions of key molecules of AKT-mTOR pathway, including phosphorylated- (p-) AKT, p-mTOR and phosphorylated-ribosomal p70S6 kinase (p-P70S6K). Conclusions Taking together, these results indicate that Prucalopride may be likely to play an anti-tumor role in glioma cells, which suggests potential implications for glioma promising therapy alternation in the further clinics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Qiao
- Department of General Affairs Section, Second Affiliated Hospital of Mudanjiang Medical University, Mudanjiang, Heilongjiang, 157009, People's Republic of China
| | - Yong-Bo Wang
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Second Affiliated Hospital of Mudanjiang Medical University, Mudanjiang, Heilongjiang, 157009, People's Republic of China
| | - Yu-Mei Gao
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Second Affiliated Hospital of Mudanjiang Medical University, Mudanjiang, Heilongjiang, 157009, People's Republic of China
| | - Li-Li Bi
- Department of Medical Instruments, Second Affiliated Hospital of Mudanjiang Medical University, Mudanjiang, Heilongjiang, 157009, People's Republic of China.
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7
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Wang W. Optogenetic manipulation of ENS - The brain in the gut. Life Sci 2017; 192:18-25. [PMID: 29155296 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2017.11.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2017] [Revised: 10/25/2017] [Accepted: 11/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Optogenetics has emerged as an important tool in neuroscience, especially in central nervous system research. It allows for the study of the brain's highly complex network with high temporal and spatial resolution. The enteric nervous system (ENS), the brain in the gut, plays critical roles for life. Although advanced progress has been made, the neural circuits of the ENS remain only partly understood because the appropriate research tools are lacking. In this review, I highlight the potential application of optogenetics in ENS research. Firstly, I describe the development of optogenetics with focusing on its three main components. I discuss the applications in vitro and in vivo, and summarize current findings in the ENS research field obtained by optogenetics. Finally, the challenges for the application of optogenetics to the ENS research will be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Wang
- School of Biological Science and Biotechnology, Minnan Normal University, Zhangzhou 363000, China.
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Giancola F, Rambaldi AM, Bianco F, Iusco S, Romagnoli N, Tagliavia C, Bombardi C, Clavenzani P, De Giorgio R, Chiocchetti R. Localization of the 5-hydroxytryptamine 4 receptor in equine enteric neurons and extrinsic sensory fibers. Neurogastroenterol Motil 2017; 29. [PMID: 28256032 DOI: 10.1111/nmo.13045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2016] [Revised: 01/09/2017] [Accepted: 01/09/2017] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Serotonin plays a pivotal role in regulating gut motility, visceral sensitivity, and fluid secretion via specific receptors. Among these receptors, 5-HT4 exerts a prominent control on gut motor function. Although the prokinetic effect exerted by 5-HT4 agonists is well known, the cellular sites of 5-HT4 expression remain poorly understood in large mammals, e.g., horses. In this study, we evaluated the distribution of 5-HT4 in the horse intestine and in foals with enteric aganglionosis, reminiscent of human Hirschsprung's disease. METHODS The intestine and spinal ganglia were obtained from three healthy horses and two foals with hereditary ileocolonic aganglionosis. Tissues were processed for immunohistochemistry using a specific antibody to 5-HT4 and a variety of neuronal markers. Myenteric and submucosal plexus 5-HT4 -immunoreactive (IR) neurons were quantified as relative percentage (mean±SD) to the total number of neurons counted. Furthermore, the density of 5-HT4 -IR nerve fibers was evaluated in the mucosa and tunica muscularis. KEY RESULTS The 5-HT4 immunoreactivity was localized to large percentages of myenteric neurons ranging from 28±9% (descending colon) to 63±19% (ileum), and submucosal neurons ranging from 54±6% (ileum) to 68±14% (duodenum). The 5-HT4 -immunoreactivity was co-expressed by some substance P-IR (SP-IR) spinal ganglion neurons and extrinsic sensory fibers of aganglionic foals. CONCLUSIONS & INFERENCES The presence of 5-HT4 in many enteric and extrinsic sensory neurons and nerve fibers provides solid morphological evidence of the cellular sites of 5-HT4 expression in horses. The evidence of SP-IR sensory neurons positive for 5-HT4 suggests its role in visceral sensitivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Giancola
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences (UNI EN ISO 9001:2008), University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy.,Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - A M Rambaldi
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences (UNI EN ISO 9001:2008), University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - F Bianco
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences (UNI EN ISO 9001:2008), University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy.,Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - S Iusco
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences (UNI EN ISO 9001:2008), University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - N Romagnoli
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences (UNI EN ISO 9001:2008), University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - C Tagliavia
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences (UNI EN ISO 9001:2008), University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - C Bombardi
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences (UNI EN ISO 9001:2008), University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - P Clavenzani
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences (UNI EN ISO 9001:2008), University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - R De Giorgio
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - R Chiocchetti
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences (UNI EN ISO 9001:2008), University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
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