Identifying postpartum depression: are 3 questions as good as 10?

Systematic Review of Barriers to and Facilitators of Screening for Postpartum Depression at Well-Child Visits in the United States

OBJECTIVE

To identify and evaluate barriers to and facilitators of screening for postpartum depression (PPD) during well-child visits in the United States. Additionally, to describe prior work on PPD screening tool evaluation and outcomes from PPD screenings conducted within the well-child setting.

DATA SOURCES

A systematic review was conducted following Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Five databases (Pub Med, PsycINFO, Web of Science, CINAHL, and Cochrane Library) were searched.

STUDY SELECTION

Randomized controlled trials, case studies, cross-sectional studies, case-control studies, cohort studies, qualitative studies, and quasi-experimental studies conducted in the United States were included. The Standard Quality Assessment Criteria Tool (QualSyst) was used to assess the methodologic quality of each included study.

DATA EXTRACTION

Sample, setting, methods, screening tools used, location of study setting, intervention, and salient findings were extracted and summarized for further analysis and synthesis.

DATA SYNTHESIS

Quantitative studies were rated on 14 aspects, and qualitative studies were rated on 10 aspects, per QualSyst. Studies received a score of 2, 1, 0, or not applicable based on scoring criteria, with higher scores indicating greater methodologic quality.

CONCLUSION

We found that barriers to PPD screening included concerns regarding time for screening, adequate training, and limited ability for referral. Facilitators of PPD screening included electronic prompts for providers, as well as tool availability and familiarity. Our results indicate that education and training about PPD screening in the pediatric setting are important next steps in addressing the rising concern of PPD in the United States.

Racism-related stress and mental health among black women living in Los Angeles County, California: A comparison of postpartum mood and anxiety disorder screening scales

PURPOSE

To assess Black women's exposure to and appraisal of racism-related stress during the postpartum period and to distinguish its impact on three indicators of postpartum mood and anxiety disorders (PMADs) symptoms.

METHODS

Data from the Black Mothers' Mental Wellness Study (N = 231) and linear regression models estimated the associations between racism-related stress and the PMAD indicators: 3-item Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS-3), 8-item Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-8), and PHQ-15.

RESULTS

The majority of participants (80.5%, N = 186) experienced racism a few times a year or more, of which 37.1% (N = 69) were bothered somewhat and 19.3% (N = 36) a lot. Racism-related stress, income, level of education, and history of mental health diagnosis explained greater variance in PMAD symptoms as measured by the PHQ-8 score (R2 = 0.58, p =  < 0.001) compared to the EPDS-3 (R2 = 0.46, p =  < 0.001) or the PHQ-15 (R2 = 0.14, p = 0.035).

CONCLUSIONS

Racism is a stressor for Black women living in Los Angeles County, California. Racism-related stress and emotional expression of PMAD symptoms were salient to the postpartum mental health of the Black women in this study. Findings from this study suggest that the PHQ-8 should be used to assess how racism impacts Black women's postpartum mental health.

In the Shadows of Motherhood: A Comprehensive Review of Postpartum Depression Screening and Intervention Practices

This comprehensive review delves into the multifaceted landscape of postpartum depression (PPD), exploring its prevalence, impact on maternal and infant well-being, and the efficacy of existing screening and intervention practices. PPD emerges as a critical concern, with implications extending beyond individual mental health to encompass the dynamics of mother-infant relationships and societal well-being. The analysis underscores the complexity of addressing PPD, emphasizing the challenges associated with screening tools and the importance of evidence-based interventions. A call to action resonates throughout, urging healthcare providers, policymakers, and stakeholders to prioritize mental health support for new mothers through enhanced screening protocols and improved accessibility to interventions. Furthermore, the review highlights the need for destigmatization and awareness campaigns to foster a supportive environment. Future research directions are outlined, emphasizing the refinement of screening tools, developing innovative interventions, and exploring cultural and socioeconomic influences on PPD outcomes. The review envisions a collaborative effort to dispel the shadows of PPD, striving for a future where mothers receive comprehensive support, ensuring optimal mental health and overall well-being.

Expression of antenatal symptoms of common mental disorders in The Gambia and the UK: a cross-sectional comparison study

OBJECTIVES

It is important to be able to detect symptoms of common mental disorders (CMDs) in pregnant women. However, the expression of these disorders can differ across cultures and depend on the specific scale used. This study aimed to (a) compare Gambian pregnant women's responses to the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) and Self-reporting Questionnaire (SRQ-20) and (b) compare responses to the EPDS in pregnant women in The Gambia and UK.

DESIGN

This cross-sectional comparison study investigates Gambian EPDS and SRQ-20 scores through correlation between the two scales, score distributions, proportion of women with high levels of symptoms, and descriptive item analysis. Comparisons between the UK and Gambian EPDS scores were made by investigating score distributions, proportion of women with high levels of symptoms, and descriptive item analysis.

SETTING

This study took place in The Gambia, West Africa and London, UK.

PARTICIPANTS

221 pregnant women from The Gambia completed both the SRQ-20 and the EPDS; 368 pregnant women from the UK completed the EPDS.

RESULTS

Gambian participants' EPDS and SRQ-20 scores were significantly moderately correlated (rs=0.6, p<0.001), had different distributions, 54% overall agreement, and different proportions of women identified as having high levels of symptoms (SRQ-20=42% vs EPDS=5% using highest cut-off score). UK participants had higher EPDS scores (M=6.5, 95% CI (6.1 to 6.9)) than Gambian participants (M=4.4, 95% CI (3.9 to 4.9)) (p<0.001, 95% CIs (-3.0 to -1.0), Cliff's delta = -0.3).

CONCLUSIONS

The differences in scores from Gambian pregnant women to the EPDS and SRQ-20 and the different EPDS responses between pregnant women in the UK and The Gambia further emphasise how methods and understanding around measuring perinatal mental health symptoms developed in Western countries need to be applied with care in other cultures.Cite Now.

Association between maternal postpartum depressive symptoms, socioeconomic factors, and birth outcomes with infant growth in South Africa

This study aimed to investigate the association between maternal postpartum depressive symptoms, household demographic, socioeconomic, and infant characteristics with infant physical growth, and how these factors correlate to determine latent factors. This study was based on the baseline data of a 6-month randomised controlled trial aimed at providing an egg a day to infants aged 6 to 9-months from a low socioeconomic community in South Africa. Information collected on household demographic, socioeconomic, and infant characteristics was by face-to-face structured interviews, and trained assessors took anthropometric measurements. The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) was used to assess maternal postpartum depressive symptoms. The analysis was based on 428 mother-infant pairs. Total EPDS score and its subscales score were not associated with stunting or underweight risk. However, a three- to four-fold increased risk of stunting and underweight, respectively was observed for premature birth. Low birthweight was associated with an estimated six-fold increased risk of underweight and stunting. Being female was associated with about 50% reduced risk of stunting and underweight. In conclusion, more robust studies are needed to substantiate these findings, with more awareness creation on the consequences of LBW and prematurity on the physical growth of infants from resource-limited settings.

Women's Participation in a Savings Group and Depression: a Community-Based Financial Capability Intervention in Mozambique

Background

As one of the fastest growing community-based financial capability approaches, village savings and loan group (VSLG) is an organized group and formal entity that creates opportunities for participants to save and access financial assets. VSLG has potentially positive impacts on increasing women's financial resources and social support and further improves their mental health. Participation in a VSLG not only increases women's opportunities for asset-building and income generation, but also facilitates trust and promotes social capital development. However, few studies have examined the association between the VSLG participation and women's depression status. To fill the knowledge gap, we examined the association between the VSLG participation and depressive symptoms among low-income women in Mozambique.

Methods

The data was collected as part of the VSLG program evaluation. The study applied a posttest-only comparison group quasi-experimental design and sampled female VSLG participants and non-participants from three sub-villages in the Sofala province, Mozambique. A multi-stage sampling technique was employed, and a total of 205 women were randomly selected, including 105 VSLG participants and 100 non-participants. Depressive symptoms were measured using the short version of the Edinburgh Depression Scale (EDS) with a summative score ranging from 7 to 28. Using the cutoff value at a score of 14, we created a dichotomous depression indicator. Linear and logit models were used to examine the associations of the VSLG participation and the participation duration with the depression score and the presence of depression controlling for demographic variables.

Results

The VSLG participants had a statistically lower mean depression score of 12.2 (SD = 4.4) compared to non-participants (15.0, SD = 4.0, p < .001). The regression analysis suggested that the VSLG participants had a mean depression score of 2.7 lower than the non-participants (p < .001). Nearly 60% of the non-participants reported the presence of depression; however, this percentage is 31% for participants (p < .001). The multivariate logit model indicated the odds of the presence of depression for participants are .34 of that for non-participants. Similar results were obtained when the VSLG program duration was used as an independent variable.

Conclusions

Study findings showed a positive association between the VSLG participation and women's mental health. Future research should further explore the intervention mechanisms and assess how the VSLG participation affects women's mental health. Findings also provided important insights into developing community-based financial capability interventions to improve low-income women's mental health.

Peripartum depression and its predictors: A longitudinal observational hospital-based study

BACKGROUND

Depression is a common problem in women in childbearing years due to burdens of motherhood and building a family. Few studies estimate the prevalence of antepartum depression compared to those in the postpartum period.

AIM

To estimate the prevalence and the severities of peripartum depression and major depressive disorder and their predictors.

METHODS

This is a longitudinal observation study. It included 200 women scoring ≥ 13 with the Edinburgh Postpartum Depression Scale, indicating presence of symptoms of depression. They had a gestational age of ≥ 6 wk and did follow-ups until the 10^th week to 12^th weeks postpartum. Information of women's reactions to life circumstances and stressors during the current pregnancy were gathered from answers to questions of the designed unstructured clinical questionnaire. Severities of depression, anxiety, and parenting stress were determined by the Beck Depre-ssion Inventory, State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Adults, and Parenting Stress Index-Short Form, respectively. Psychiatric interviewing was done to confirm the diagnosis of major depression. Measuring the levels of triiodothronine (T3), thyroxine (T4), and thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) was done in both antepartum and postpartum periods.

RESULTS

Out of 968 (mean age = 27.35 ± 6.42 years), 20.66% (n = 200) of the patients had clinically significant symptoms of depression and 7.44% had major depression. Previous premenstrual dysphoria, post-abortive depression, and depression unrelated to pregnancy and were reported in 43%, 8%, and 4.5% of the patients, respectively. Psychosocial stressors were reported in 15.5% of the patients. Antepartum anxiety and parenting stress were reported in 90.5% and 65% of the patients, respectively. Postpartum T3, T4, and TSH levels did not significantly differ from reference values. Regression analysis showed that anxiety trait was a predictor for antepartum (standardized regression coefficients = 0.514, t = 8.507, P = 0.001) and postpartum (standardized regression coefficients = 0.573, t = 0.040, P = 0.041) depression. Antepartum depression (standardized regression coefficients = -0.086, t = -2.750, P = 0.007), and parenting stress (standardized regression coefficients = 0.080, t = 14.34, P = 0.0001) were also predictors for postpartum depression.

CONCLUSION

Results showed that 20.66% of the patients had clinically significant symptoms of depression and 7.44% had major depression. Anxiety was a predictor for antepartum and postpartum depression. Antepartum depression and parenting stress were also predictors for postpartum depression.

Perinatal depression screening using smartphone technology: Exploring uptake, engagement and future directions for the MGH Perinatal Depression Scale (MGHPDS)

Women may experience new-onset or worsening depressive disorders during pregnancy and the postpartum. If untreated, there may be detrimental consequences to the health and wellbeing of the woman and to her baby. There is a need for improved tools and approaches that can be easily and broadly implemented to effectively detect depression during the perinatal period. Early identification of depression during pregnancy is an important first step towards connecting women to treatment and preventing continued depression into the postpartum or beyond. This report provides preliminary findings from a pilot study of a digital screening app for perinatal depression expiring potential for app reach, engagement, and user demographics and mental health symptoms. With mainly passive recruitment efforts, we collected cross-sectional mental health data on over 700 women during the perinatal period, including women across over 30 countries. We report on mean depression scores among women during pregnancy and the postpartum as well as on constructs that are commonly comorbid with depression, including anxiety, sleep dysregulation, and perceived stress. Over half of the women during pregnancy and over 70% of women in the postpartum had a depression score indicative of clinical depression. Future research directions for this work and potential for public health impact are discussed, including longitudinal data collection and analyses of symptomology over time and embedding evidence-based digital therapeutics into the app as a means to increase access to mental health services.

Mood instability, depression, and anxiety in pregnancy and adverse neonatal outcomes

Background

Antenatal women experience an increased level of mood and anxiety symptoms, which have negative effects on mothers’ mental and physical health as well as the health of their newborns. The relation of maternal depression and anxiety in pregnancy with neonate outcomes is well-studied with inconsistent findings. However, the association between antenatal mood instability (MI) and neonatal outcomes has not been investigated even though antenatal women experience an elevated level of MI. We sought to address this gap and to contribute to the literature about pregnancy neonate outcomes by examining the relationship among antenatal MI, depression, and anxiety and neonatal outcomes.

Methods

A prospective cohort of women (n = 555) participated in this study at early pregnancy (T1, 17.4 ± 4.9 weeks) and late pregnancy (T2, 30.6 ± 2.7 weeks). The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) was used to assess antenatal depressive symptoms, anxiety was measured by the EPDS anxiety subscale, and mood instability was measured by a visual analogue scale with five questions. These mood states together with stress, social support, as well as lifestyle were also examined in relation to neonatal outcomes using chi-square tests and logistic regression models.

Results

Mood instability, depression, and anxiety were unrelated to adverse neonatal outcomes. Only primiparous status was associated with small for gestational age after Bonferroni correction.

Conclusions

We report no associations between antenatal mood symptoms including MI, depression, and anxiety and neonatal outcomes. More studies are required to further explore the relationship between antenatal mood instability, depression, and anxiety and neonatal outcomes.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12884-021-04021-y.

Pre- and post-natal maternal anxiety and early childhood weight gain

BACKGROUND

While maternal depression has been linked to impaired child growth, the relationship between anxiety and child weight gain is unknown. The study objective was to investigate maternal pre- and post-natal anxiety in relation to child weight gain.

METHODS

Data included 1168 children in the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children. Child height and weight were measured at the median ages of 25 and 31 months postnatally and used to calculate body mass index (BMI). Maternal anxiety was measured with the Crown-Crisp Experiential Index at 18 and 32 gestational weeks, and two and 21 months postpartum. Mothers scoring in the top 15% at one or more of the four time points were considered to have anxiety. Maternal depressive symptoms were measured using the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale-7 (EPDS-7) at these same time points. Maternal depression was defined as EPDS-7 scores of >10. We used Generalized Estimating Equations to assess whether child BMI trajectories varied by the presence of maternal anxiety. Parallel analyses were conducted for maternal depression.

RESULTS

Among children of mothers who had anxiety at least at one timepoint, the BMI changes associated with a three-month increase in child age increased by 0.06 (95% CI:0.004-0.12) compared to BMI changes in children of mothers without anxiety. Maternal depressive symptoms were not associated with child BMI trajectories.

LIMITATIONS

Maternal anxiety and depressive symptoms were based on maternal self-report.

CONCLUSION

Maternal anxiety around childbirth was associated with modest increases in child BMI gain during the child's second year of life.

Prevalence of Depression Among Fathers at the Pediatric Well-Child Care Visit

This study estimates the prevalence of paternal depression using the Child Health Improvement Through Computer Automation system in fathers attending well-child care visits.

A comparison of the PHQ-2 and MGMQ for screening for emotional health difficulties during pregnancy

BACKGROUND

Routine screening for emotional health difficulties in women during pregnancy is now advocated in several countries. There is a need therefore to compare the performance of different self-report measures to accomplish this. This study reports on the comparative performance of two such measures- the well-established PHQ-2, which aims to detect depression, and the more recent MGMQ, which aims to detect a wide array of negative emotions.

METHOD

Women (N = 2292) attending a public hospital antenatal clinic over a 14-month period completed the two measures, either on their own (72%), verbally administered by the midwife (25%), or with an interpreter (3%).

RESULTS

Similar rates of women screened positive on each instrument (PHQ-2: 11.6%; MGMQ: 12.3%), but the overlap between the two measures was low. The PHQ-2 only detected 58% of the MGMQ screen positive women, while the MGMQ detected 89.5% of the PHQ-2 screen positive women. No clinically meaningful difference in screen positive rates on either measure was evident for the administration method.

LIMITATIONS

No demographic data were available apart from gestational age, and only about half the women presenting to the clinic during the time period were screened with the measures.

CONCLUSION

The MGMQ detected a greater proportion of women screening positive on the PHQ-2 than vice-versa. This is part due to the MGMQ's focus on a wider range of negative emotions than just depression. Accumulating evidence for this MGMQ indicates that clinical services can consider using this simple measure if they wish to screen for a broad range of negative emotions during pregnancy and postnatally.

Comparison of mental health screening tools for detecting antenatal depression and anxiety disorders in South African women

BACKGROUND

Antenatal depression and anxiety disorders are highly prevalent in low and middle-income countries. Screening of pregnant women in primary care antenatal settings provides an opportunity for entry to care, but data are needed on the performance of different screening tools. We compared five widely-used questionnaires in a sample of pregnant women in urban South Africa.

METHOD

Pregnant women attending a primary care antenatal clinic were administered five tools by trained research assistants: the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS), the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9), the Kessler Psychological Distress scale (K10) and a shortened 6-item version (K6), the Whooley questions and the two-item Generalised Anxiety Disorder scale (GAD-2). Following this, a registered mental health counsellor administered the MINI Plus, a structured clinical diagnostic interview. The Area Under the Curve (AUC) from Receiver Operator Characteristic curve analysis was used to summarise screening test performance and Cronbach's α used to assess internal consistency.

RESULTS

Of 376 participants, 32% were diagnosed with either MDE and/or anxiety disorders. All five questionnaires demonstrated moderate to high performance (AUC = 0.78-0.85). The EPDS was the best performing instrument for detecting MDE and the K10 and K6 for anxiety disorder. For MDE and/or anxiety disorders, the EPDS had the highest AUC (0.83). Of the short instruments, the K10 (AUC = 0.85) and the K6 (AUC = 0.85) performed the best, with the K6 showing good balance between sensitivity (74%) and specificity (85%) and a good positive predictive value (70%). The Whooley questions (AUC = 0.81) were the best performing ultra-short instrument. Internal consistency ranged from good to acceptable (α = 0.89-0.71). However, the PPV of the questionnaires compared with the diagnostic interview, ranged from 54% to 71% at the optimal cut-off scores.

CONCLUSIONS

Universal screening for case identification of antenatal depression and anxiety disorders in low-resource settings can be conducted with a number of commonly used screening instruments. Short and ultra-short screening instruments such as the K6 and the Whooley questions may be feasible and acceptable for use in these settings.

A longitudinal study of women's depression symptom profiles during and after the postpartum phase

BACKGROUND

An issue of critical importance for psychiatry and women's health is whether postpartum depression (PPD) represents a unique condition. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders asserts that major depressive disorder (MDD) may present with peripartum onset, without suggesting any other differences between MDD and PPD. The absence of any distinct features calls into question the nosologic validity of PPD as a diagnostic category. The present study investigates whether symptom profiles differ between PPD and depression occurring outside the postpartum phase.

METHODS

In a prospective, longitudinal study of parturient women (N = 239), we examine the manifestation of depression symptoms. We assess factor structure of symptom profiles, and whether factors are differentially pronounced during and after the postpartum period.

RESULTS

Factors were revealed representing: Worry, Emotional/Circadian/Energetic Dysregulation, Somatic/Cognitive, Appetite, Distress Display, and Anger symptoms. The factor structure was validated at postpartum and after-postpartum timepoints. Interestingly, the Worry factor, comprising anxiety and guilt, was significantly more pronounced during the postpartum timepoint, and the Emotional/Circadian/Energetic Dysregulation factor, which contained sadness and anhedonia, was significantly less pronounced during the postpartum period.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that PPD may be a unique syndrome, necessitating research, diagnosis, and treatment strategies distinct from those for MDD. Results indicate the possibility that Worry is an enhanced feature of PPD compared to depression outside the postpartum period, and the crucial role of sadness/anhedonia in MDD diagnosis may be less applicable to PPD diagnosis.

Do mothers enjoy playing sensitively with their infants?

BACKGROUND

Early sensitive caregiver-infant interactions form an important foundation for infant development. Although mutual enjoyment is thought to motivate proximity and continued interactions, there is no empirical evidence that mothers enjoy interacting and behaving sensitively. Research to date has focused on the influence of stable/pathological maternal negative emotions on parenting, with parenting often assessed on one occasion only. Therefore, little is known about what accounts for the variability in sensitivity across interactions.

OBJECTIVES

The objective of the present study was to evaluate what makes sensitivity reinforcing to typical mothers and thus more likely to be repeated. We hypothesised that 15- to 28-week-old infants' positive and active engagement would mediate the relationship between their mothers' sensitivity and change in emotion state from pre- to post-interaction.

METHOD

Using a naturalistic, repeated-measures design, 390 unique interactions from 49 mothers (mean age: M = 29.90 years, SD = 5.41) and their infants (25 female; mean age: M = 22.53 weeks, SD = 3.77) were rated using the Global Rating Scales of Mother-Infant Interaction. Mothers completed measures of their own mood (Profile of Mood States - 15) before and after each interaction.

RESULTS

Mothers reported feeling slightly less negative and more vigorous after interacting with their infants. The more sensitively they behaved, the more engaged their infants were and the more vigorous the mothers felt thereafter. Infant engagement did not mediate the relationship between sensitivity and change in negative emotion or in vigour.

CONCLUSIONS

Results suggest that upon behaving sensitively, mothers feel more vigorous regardless of their infants' engagement.

Ask the Question: Screening for Postpartum Mood and Anxiety Disorders in Pediatric Primary Care

Postpartum mood and anxiety disorders (PMADs) are a significant source of toxic stress for young children and can disrupt developing brain architecture resulting in long-lasting deleterious effects. Thus, screening for PMADs must be considered as an essential task of a pediatric primary care provider (PCP) and the pediatric medical home. Problems in parenting capacity in mothers with PMADs can lead to disorders in attachment and a range of other emotional and developmental challenges for a young child. Therefore, all PCP office visits with mothers should include surveillance as well as formal screening at regular, pre-determined intervals. During surveillance, identification of psychosocial, maternal, infant, and maternal/infant risk factors is critical. There are a number of well researched, standardized, reliable, free and valid screening tools including the Patient Health Questionnaires (PHQ-2 and PHQ-9) and the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EDPS). Office implementation includes availability of educational materials, resource information, and referrals so families can get appropriate treatment. Screening for PMADs is highly effective and helps to identify a common, underdiagnosed disorder in parents that without identification and appropriate treatment can lead to significant negative outcomes for a young child.

Follow-up of Mothers with Suspected Postpartum Depression from Pediatrics Clinics

PURPOSE

Pediatric providers are increasingly screening for postpartum depression (PD), yet, it is unknown how often mothers comply with recommendations to seek treatment. The objectives were to describe the rate at which mothers with suspected PD seek treatment and explore factors that predict help-seeking behavior.

DESIGN AND METHODS

Mothers were recruited from four pediatric clinics after identification using the Child Health Improvement through Computer Automation (CHICA) system. Mothers with a positive screen were invited to participate in a telephone interview between January 2012 and December 2014. Mothers reported if they sought treatment or called a community resource.

RESULTS

73 of 133 eligible mothers participated (55% response rate). Fifty women recalled a recommendation to seek help. Only 43.8% (32/73) made a follow-up appointment with an adult provider and even fewer kept the appointment.

CONCLUSION

A majority of mothers suspected of having PD recalled a referral for further intervention; yet, less than half took action. Further investigation of barriers of help-seeking behavior is warranted.

Postpartum Depression in a General Pediatric Practice: Practical Methods for Improving Screening and Referrals

Postpartum depression (PPD) is a common problem in new mothers. Untreated PPD is associated with behavioral and developmental problems in children. We examined the effects of an educational session about PPD and modification of the electronic medical record (EMR) on providers' screening for PPD. An education session was given to the physicians and pre and post surveys compared comfort and self-reported screening. Following the EMR change, a retrospective chart review was conducted from three time periods: group 1-before the conference, group 2-after the conference but before EMR change, and group 3-after screening in the EMR. Documented screening increased from 0% in group 1, to 2% in group 2, to 74% in group 3 (P < .001). Ten percent screened positive, but only 14% had documented referrals to a provider for treatment. The combination of provider education and screening questions integrated into the EMR enhanced PPD screening rates among physicians in a busy practice.

Parent Health Literacy, Depression, and Risk for Pediatric Injury

BACKGROUND

Population-wide research on the impact of parent health literacy to children's health outcomes is limited. We assessed the relationship of low parent health literacy to a range of pediatric health risks within a large cohort of primary care patients.

METHODS

Data were from 17 845 English- and Spanish-speaking parents of children aged ≤7 years presenting for well-child care. We used a 3-item screener to measure health literacy. Outcomes included secondhand smoke exposure, asthma treatment nonadherence, parent depression, child-rearing practices, injury prevention, and parent first-aid knowledge. We summarized study variables with descriptive statistics and then performed multivariable logistic regression to identify associations between low parent literacy and our dependent measures.

RESULTS

Mean child age was 4.8 years (SD 3.7); 36.5% of parent respondents had low health literacy. In models adjusted for child gender, race/ethnicity, insurance, age, and parent language preference, low parent health literacy was related to a range of pediatric health risks, including parent depression (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] 1.32; 95% confidence interval 1.18-1.48), firearm access (AOR 1.68; 1.49-1.89), not having a working smoke detector (AOR 3.54; 2.74-4.58), and lack of first-aid knowledge about choking (AOR 1.67; 1.44-1.93) and burns (AOR 1.45; 1.29-1.63). Children of parents with low health literacy were also more likely to watch >2 hours of television per day (AOR 1.27; 1.17-1.36).

CONCLUSIONS

Low parent health literacy is independently and significantly related to parent depression, child television viewing, and at-risk family behaviors associated with child injury. Use of low-literacy approaches to health-behavior interventions may be essential to address common child morbidities.

Mechanisms of Resilience in Children of Mothers Who Self-Report with Depressive Symptoms in the First Postnatal Year

Background

Symptoms of maternal postnatal depression are associated with an increased risk of adverse effects on child development. However, some children exposed to postnatal depression have outcomes similar to unexposed children, and can be referred to as resilient. This study aimed to determine the mechanisms of resilience in children exposed to depressive symptoms postnatally.

Method

Data are from a prospective cohort study, the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children. Self-report questionnaire data were collected during pregnancy and the child’s first 2 years regarding maternal views of parenting and her perception of the child. The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) was completed postnatally at 8 months and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) at age 11 years. Exposed children who scored above the median score of non-exposed children were defined as resilient. Structural equation modeling was used to investigate the development of resilience.

Results

From the core ALSPAC cohort, 1,009 children (6.9%) were exposed to maternal depression at 8 months postnatally. The SDQ total difficulties scores at 11 years of age indicated that 325 (32.2%) were resilient, 684 were non-resilient. Maternal positive feelings about parenting and child non-verbal communication at 15 months increased the likelihood of later resilience.

Conclusions

In this study, resilience was associated with two factors: the child’s nonverbal communication at 15 months and by maternal positive feelings about parenting. Early intervention to support mother-child interaction and foster child development in women identified with postnatal depressive symptoms may benefit later child resilience.

When It Is Not Postpartum Depression: Understanding the Postpartum Mental Health Needs of Mothers and How They Are Being Met

Although often overlooked, subclinical symptoms of postpartum depression, anxiety, or other mental health symptoms among new mothers increase the risk of more severe problems and can adversely affect maternal and infant health. We conducted focus groups with 92 new mothers and interviews with 20 healthcare providers to elucidate perceptions of mental health needs among first-time mothers and how healthcare providers address these needs. Our findings suggest that a tradition of focusing exclusively on severe presentations of mental health issues may limit maternal and provider ability to address the full spectrum of mental health needs.

Repeated depression screening during the first postpartum year

PURPOSE

Postpartum depression (PPD) screening at 4 to 12 weeks' postpartum can improve outcomes for women when linked to in-practice management programs. The benefit of repeated PPD screening during the first year postpartum remains unclear.

METHODS

We report a substudy of a large pragmatic trial of early PPD screening and practice management, the Translating Research into Practice for Postpartum Depression (TRIPPD) study. Outcome analyses were based on demographic information and Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) screening scores from questionnaires mailed to all enrolled women at baseline (4 to 12 weeks' postpartum) and again at 6 and at 12 months' postpartum. The main outcomes of this substudy were the 6- and 12-month rates of PHQ-9 scores that were 10 or greater for women whose baseline PHQ-9 scores were less than 10. Women whose scores were 10 or greater would be considered at high risk of PPD and appropriate for further evaluation.

RESULTS

At 6 months, 134 (10.9%) of the 1,235 women who did not have PHQ-9 scores greater than 10 at baseline had elevated scores appropriate for further evaluation. At 12 months, 59 (6.1%) of the 969 women who did not have PHQ-9 scores greater than 10 at baseline or at 6 months had elevated scores. Together the 6- and 12-month repeated screenings identified 193 women at high risk of depression. This finding represents 13.5% of the 1,432 women whose screening results were negative for PPD at baseline.

CONCLUSIONS

Repeated PPD screening at 6 and 12 months' postpartum increases the percentage of women identified as being at high risk of PPD. Further work will be required to understand the impact of this repeated screening on patient outcomes.

Quasi-experimental evaluation of a telephone-based peer support intervention for maternal depression

AIMS

To evaluate the effect of telephone-based peer support on maternal depression and social support

BACKGROUND

Postpartum depression is a global health concern and lack of treatment options mean many mothers are depressed beyond the first year after birth. Strong evidence has shown telephone-based peer support, provided by a mother recovered from depression, effectively improves depression outcomes. This model has not been tested with mothers with depression any time up to two years postpartum.

DESIGN

Quasi-experimental, one group pre-test, posttest.

METHOD

The study population was mothers in New Brunswick, Canada with depression up to 24 months after delivery. The sample (N = 64) was recruited between May 2011-October 2013. Peer volunteers recovered from postpartum depression were trained and delivered an average of 8·84 (Range 1-13) support telephone calls. Depression and social support outcomes were assessed at intervention mid-point (average 7·43 weeks, n = 37) and end (average 13·9 weeks, n = 34).

RESULTS

Mean depression significantly declined from baseline, 15·4 (N = 49), to mid-point, 8·30 and end of the study, 6·26. At mid-point 8·1% (n = 3/37) of mothers were depressed and at endpoint 11·8% (4/34) were depressed suggesting some relapse. Perceptions of social support significantly improved and higher support was significantly related with lower depression symptoms.

CONCLUSION

Findings offer promise that telephone-based peer support is effective for both early postpartum depression and maternal depression up to two years after delivery.

Secondhand smoke exposure, parental depressive symptoms and preschool behavioral outcomes

Little is known about the association of secondhand smoke (SHS) exposure and behavioral conditions among preschoolers. A cross-sectional analysis was used to examine billing and pharmacy claims from November 2004 to June 2012 linked to medical encounter-level data for 2,441 children from four pediatric community health clinics. Exposure to SHS was associated with attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder/ADHD and disruptive behavior disorder/DBD after adjusting for potential confounding factors. Assessment of exposure to SHS and parental depressive symptoms in early childhood may increase providers' ability to identify children at higher risk of behavioral issues and provide intervention at the earliest stages.

Antenatal depression case finding by community health workers in South Africa: feasibility of a mobile phone application

Randomized controlled trials conducted in resource-limited settings have shown that once women with depressed mood are evaluated by specialists and referred for treatment, lay health workers can be trained to effectively administer psychological treatments. We sought to determine the extent to which community health workers could also be trained to conduct case finding using short and ultrashort screening instruments programmed into mobile phones. Pregnant, Xhosa-speaking women were recruited independently in two cross-sectional studies (N = 1,144 and N = 361) conducted in Khayelitsha, South Africa and assessed for antenatal depression. In the smaller study, community health workers with no training in human subject research were trained to administer the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) during the routine course of their community-based outreach. We compared the operating characteristics of four short and ultrashort versions of the EPDS with the criterion standard of probable depression, defined as an EPDS-10 ≥ 13. The prevalence of probable depression (475/1144 [42 %] and 165/361 [46 %]) was consistent across both samples. The 2-item subscale demonstrated poor internal consistency (Cronbach's α ranged from 0.55 to 0.58). All four subscales demonstrated excellent discrimination, with area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) values ranging from 0.91 to 0.99. Maximal discrimination was observed for the 7-item depressive symptoms subscale: at the conventional screening threshold of ≥10, it had 0.97 sensitivity and 0.76 specificity for detecting probable antenatal depression. The comparability of the findings across the two studies suggests that it is feasible to use community health workers to conduct case finding for antenatal depression.

Factor structure of the Japanese version of the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale in the postpartum period

Background

The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) is a widely used screening tool for postpartum depression (PPD). Although the reliability and validity of EPDS in Japanese has been confirmed and the prevalence of PPD is found to be about the same as Western countries, the factor structure of the Japanese version of EPDS has not been elucidated yet.

Methods

690 Japanese mothers completed all items of the EPDS at 1 month postpartum. We divided them randomly into two sample sets. The first sample set (n = 345) was used for exploratory factor analysis, and the second sample set was used (n = 345) for confirmatory factor analysis.

Results

The result of exploratory factor analysis indicated a three-factor model consisting of anxiety, depression and anhedonia. The results of confirmatory factor analysis suggested that the anxiety and anhedonia factors existed for EPDS in a sample of Japanese women at 1 month postpartum. The depression factor varies by the models of acceptable fit.

Conclusions

We examined EPDS scores. As a result, “anxiety” and “anhedonia” exist for EPDS among postpartum women in Japan as already reported in Western countries. Cross-cultural research is needed for future research.

Community-based prenatal screening for postpartum depression in a South African township

OBJECTIVE

To assess the feasibility of using community health workers to administer short or ultra-short screening instruments during routine community-based prenatal outreach for detecting probable depression at 12 weeks postpartum.

METHODS

During pregnancy and at 12 weeks postpartum, the 10-item Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS-10) was administered to 249 Xhosa-speaking black African women living in Khayelitsha, South Africa. We compared the operating characteristics of the prenatal EPDS-10, as well as 4 short and ultra-short subscales, with the criterion standard of probable postpartum depression.

RESULTS

Seventy-nine (31.7%) women were assessed as having probable postpartum depression. A prenatal EPDS-10 score of 13 or higher had 0.67 sensitivity and 0.67 specificity for detecting probable postpartum depression. Briefer subscales performed similarly.

CONCLUSION

Community health workers successfully conducted community-based screening for depression in a resource-limited setting using short or ultra-short screening instruments. However, overall feasibility was limited because prenatal screening failed to accurately predict probable depression during the postpartum period.

Prevalence of infant television viewing and maternal depression symptoms

BACKGROUND

Early television (TV) viewing has been linked with maternal depression and has adverse health effects in children. However, it is not known how early TV viewing occurs. This study evaluated the prevalence at which parents report TV viewing for their children if asked in the first 2 years of life and whether TV viewing is associated with maternal depression symptoms.

METHODS

Using a cross-sectional design, TV viewing was evaluated in children 0 to 2 years of age in 4 pediatric clinics in Indianapolis, IN, between January 2011 and April 2012. Families were screened for any parental report of depression symptoms (0-15 months) and for parental report of TV viewing (before 2 years of age) using a computerized clinical decision support system linked to the patient's electronic health record.

RESULTS

There were 3254 children in the study. By parent report, 50% of children view TV by 2 months of age, 75% by 4 months of age, and 90% by 2 years of age. Complete data for both TV viewing and maternal depression symptoms were available for 2397 (74%) of children. In regression models, the odds of parental report of TV viewing increased by 27% for each additional month of child's age (odds ratio [OR], 1.27; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.25-1.30; p < .001). The odds of TV viewing increased by almost half with parental report of depression symptoms (OR, 1.47; CI, 1.07-2.00, p = .016). Publicly insured children had 3 times the odds of TV viewing compared to children with private insurance (OR, 3.00; CI, 1.60-5.63; p = .001). Black children had almost 4 times the odds (OR, 3.75; CI, 2.70-5.21; p < .001), and white children had one-and-a-half times the odds (OR, 1.55; CI, 1.04-2.30; p = .032) of TV viewing when compared to Latino children.

CONCLUSIONS

By parental report, TV viewing occurs at a very young age in infancy, usually between 0 and 3 months and varies by insurance and race/ethnicity. Children whose parents report depression symptoms are especially at risk for early TV viewing. Like maternal depression, TV viewing poses added risks for reduced interpersonal interactions to stimulate infant development. This work suggests the need to develop early targeted developmental interventions. Children as young as 0 to 3 months are viewing TV on most days. In the study sample of 0 to 2 year olds, the odds of TV viewing increased by more than a quarter for each additional month of child's age and by as much as half when the mother screened positive for depression symptoms.

Accuracy of brief screening tools for identifying postpartum depression among adolescent mothers

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the accuracy of the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) and 3 subscales for identifying postpartum depression among primiparous adolescent mothers.

METHODS

Mothers enrolled in a randomized controlled trial to prevent postpartum depression completed a psychiatric diagnostic interview and the 10-item EPDS at 6 weeks, 3 months, and 6 months postpartum. Three subscales of the EPDS were assessed as brief screening tools: 3-item anxiety subscale (EPDS-3), 7-item depressive symptoms subscale (EPDS-7), and 2-item subscale (EPDS-2) that resemble the Patient Health Questionnaire-2. Receiver operating characteristic curves and the areas under the curves for each tool were compared to assess accuracy. The sensitivities and specificities of each screening tool were calculated in comparison with diagnostic criteria for a major depressive disorder. Repeated-measures longitudinal analytical techniques were used.

RESULTS

A total of 106 women contributed 289 postpartum visits; 18% of the women met criteria for incident postpartum depression by psychiatric diagnostic interview. When used as continuous measures, the full EPDS, EPDS-7, and EPDS-2 performed equally well (area under the curve >0.9). Optimal cutoff scores for a positive depression screen for the EPDS and EPDS-7 were lower (≥ 9 and ≥ 7, respectively) than currently recommended cutoff scores (≥ 10). At optimal cutoff scores, the EPDS and EPDS-7 both had sensitivities of 90% and specificities of >85%.

CONCLUSIONS

The EPDS, EPDS-7, and EPDS-2 are highly accurate at identifying postpartum depression among adolescent mothers. In primary care pediatric settings, the EPDS and its shorter subscales have potential for use as effective depression screening tools.

Child exposure to parental violence and psychological distress associated with delayed milestones

OBJECTIVE

To examine the association between parental report of intimate partner violence (IPV) and parental psychological distress (PPD) with child attainment of developmental milestones.

METHODS

By using data collected from a large cohort of primary care patients, this cross-sectional study examined the relationship between parental report of IPV and/or PPD and the attainment of developmental milestones within the first 72 months of a child's life. Multivariate logistic regression analyses were used to adjust for parental report of child abuse concern and sociodemographic characteristics.

RESULTS

Our study population included 16 595 subjects. Children of parents reporting both IPV and PPD (n = 88; 0.5%) were more likely to fail at least 1 milestone across the following developmental domains: language (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 2.1; 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.3-3.3), personal-social (aOR 1.9; 95% CI 1.2-2.9), and gross motor (aOR 3.0; 95% CI 1.8-5.0). Significant associations for those reporting IPV-only (n = 331; 2.0%) were found for language (aOR 1.4; 95% CI 1.1-1.9), personal-social (aOR 1.7; 95% CI 1.4-2.2), and fine motor-adaptive (aOR 1.7; 95% CI 1.0-2.7). Significant associations for those reporting PPD-only (n = 1920; 11.6%) were found for: language (aOR 1.5; 95% CI 1.3-1.7), personal-social (aOR 1.6; 95% CI 1.5-1.8), gross motor (aOR 1.6; 95% CI 1.4-1.8), and fine-motor adaptive (aOR 1.6; 95% CI 1.3-2.0).

CONCLUSIONS

Screening children for IPV and PPD helps identify those at risk for poor developmental outcomes who may benefit from early intervention.

Impact of postpartum anxiety and depression on child's mental development from two peri-urban communities of Karachi, Pakistan: a quasi-experimental study

BACKGROUND

Postpartum anxiety and depression has detrimental effects on the overall mental development of children. This study aims to assess the impact of postpartum anxiety and depression on children's mental development on all sub-scales in a Pakistani population.

METHODS

A quasi-experimental study was conducted in two peri-urban communities of Karachi, a mega city of Pakistan, to assess the impact of postpartum anxiety and depression on children's growth and mental development. A total of 420 women were enrolled, who had given consent out of 651 pregnant women identified, during February 2004 to December 2005. Data for socio-demographic, home environment and family relationship variables were collected between 36 weeks of pregnancy and within 10 days of childbirth. Mother's levels of anxiety and depression were assessed at 1, 2, 6, 12, 18, 24, and 30 months of childbirth. An indigenous, validated screening instrument- Aga Khan University Anxiety and Depression scale was used and diagnostic confirmation was done through a psychologist's interview, based on DSM IV criteria. Children's growth and development was monitored in the same sequence using an Early Childhood Development tool that consists of five subscales; socio emotional, language, cognitive, gross motor and fine motor development. Physical growth was monitored by measuring height and weight of the child. Data was analyzed using SAS 9.2. Multivariable Generalized Estimating Equations (GEE) logistic regression was conducted to identify association of postpartum anxiety and depression with each early childhood development indicator, adjusting for parental and child factors.

RESULTS

A significant association of postpartum anxiety and depression with delayed development on all five subscales of children's mental development was found in our study. Interestingly, our study found that higher maternal age had adverse effects on child's emotional whereas positive impact on child's cognitive development. Children's stunting had an adverse impact on all five subscales of children's development. Male children were at higher risk for delayed language and gross motor development relative to female children.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study found that postpartum anxiety and depression is associated with adverse outcomes regarding children's mental development on all sub-scales. The impact was accentuated by low family income or child's increasing age.

Analysis of brief screening tools for the detection of postpartum depression: comparisons of the PRAMS 6-item instrument, PHQ-9, and structured interviews

Postpartum depression (PPD) is an important mental health issue affecting approximately 10 % of women. Self-report screening measures represent utility for detecting PPD in both clinical and research settings. The current study sought to inspect the accuracy of two screening measures compared to clinical interviews. As part of an ongoing clinical trial, 1,392 women between the ages of 18 and 45 were screened for PPD using the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9) and a six-item scale developed from CDC Pregnancy Risk Assessment questions (PRAMS-6). Three item subscales of the PRAMS-6 were also inspected-three depression (PRAMS-3D) and three anxiety items (PRAMS-3A). Receiver operating characteristics compared the diagnostic accuracy of the PHQ-9, PRAMS-6, PRAMS-3D, and PRAMS-3A to both the Structured Clinical Interview for the DSM-IV (SCID) and the Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression. The PHQ-9, PRAMS-6, and PRAMS-3D all showed moderate accuracy at diagnosing PPD. Diagnostic cut points are provided. The PRAMS-6 instrument is a brief and effective screening tool for PPD. The time frame of symptom assessment may account for some variability in accuracy between the PHQ-9 and PRAMS screening instruments.

Associations of early exposure to intimate partner violence and parental depression with subsequent mental health outcomes

IMPORTANCE

Children with known exposure to intimate partner violence (IPV) or maternal depression are at risk for negative mental health outcomes as early as preschool age. Active ongoing surveillance for these risk factors can lead to earlier mental health intervention for children.

OBJECTIVE

To examine the association between parent reports of IPV and depressive symptoms within the first 3 years of a child's life with subsequent mental health conditions and psychotropic drug treatment.

DESIGN

Prospective cohort study linking parental IPV and depression with subsequent billing and pharmacy data between November 1, 2004, and June 7, 2012.

SETTING

Four pediatric clinics.

PARTICIPANTS

A total of 2422 children receiving care from clinics that implemented the Child Health Improvement Through Computer Automation (CHICA) system.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Any report of IPV and/or parental depressive symptoms from birth to age 3 years, mental health diagnoses made with International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision criteria, and any psychotropic drug treatment between ages 3 and 6 years.

RESULTS

Fifty-eight caregivers (2.4%) reported both IPV and depressive symptoms before their children were aged 3 years, 69 (2.8%) reported IPV only, 704 (29.1%) reported depressive symptoms only, and 1591 (65.7%) reported neither exposure. Children of parents reporting both IPV and depressive symptoms were more likely to have a diagnosis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (adjusted odds ratio = 4.0; 95% CI, 1.5-10.9), even after adjusting for the child's sex, race/ethnicity, and insurance type. Children whose parents reported depressive symptoms were more likely to have been prescribed psychotropic medication (adjusted odds ratio = 1.9; 95%, CI 1.0-3.4).

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

Exposure to both IPV and depression before age 3 years is associated with preschool-aged onset of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder; early exposure to parental depression is associated with being prescribed psychotropic medication. Pediatricians play a critical role in performing active, ongoing surveillance of families with these known social risk factors and providing early intervention to negate long-term sequelae.

Detection of antenatal depression in rural HIV-affected populations with short and ultrashort versions of the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS)

Risk of antenatal depression has been shown to be elevated in Southern Africa and can impact maternal and child outcomes, especially in the context of the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). Brief screening methods may optimize access to care during pregnancy, particularly where resources are scarce. This research evaluated shorter versions of the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) to detect antenatal depression. This cross-sectional study at a large primary health care (PHC) facility recruited a consecutive series of 109 antenatal attendees in rural South Africa. Women were in the second half of pregnancy and completed the EPDS and Structured Clinical Interview for Depression (SCID). The recommended EPDS cutoff (≥13) was used to determine probable depression. Four versions, including the 10-item scale, seven-item depression, and novel three- and five-item versions developed through regression analysis, were evaluated using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis. High numbers of women 51/109 (47 %) were depressed, most depression was chronic, and nearly half of the women were HIV positive 49/109 (45 %). The novel three-item version had improved positive predictive value (PPV) over the 10-item version and equivalent specificity to the seven-item depression subscale; the novel five-item provided the best overall performance in terms of ROC and Cronbach's reliability statistics and had improved specificity. The brevity, sensitivity, and reliability of the short and ultrashort versions could facilitate widespread community screening. The usefulness of the novel three- and five-item versions are underscored by the fact that sensitivity is important at first screening, while specificity becomes more important at higher levels of care. Replication in larger samples is required.

Repeat testing on the Edinburgh Depression Scale and the HADS-A in pregnancy: differentiating between transient and enduring distress

BACKGROUND

The Edinburgh Depression Scale (EDS/EPDS) is routinely used in many clinical services to screen for probable distress in antenatal and postnatal women. Typically a single administration of this scale results in a referral to a specialist mental health service if the woman scores above the service's cut-off score on the measure - that is, scores 'high'. A few postnatal studies have shown, however, that many women when re-tested just a few weeks later no longer score 'high'. This study explored this phenomenon in a sample of pregnant women, using both the EDS and an anxiety self-report measure (Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale - Anxiety subscale: HADS-A).

METHOD

164 English-speaking pregnant women attending a local public hospital's antenatal clinic for their first appointment participated. At this appointment they completed the EDS and the HADS-A, and predicted how they might be feeling in about two-week time. Approximately two weeks later they were interviewed by phone and again completed the EDS and the HADS-A, and answered questions about possible mood changes.

RESULTS

Regardless of which of several cut-off scores on the EDS or HADS-A was used to define 'high' scorers, approximately 50% (±6%) of women scoring high at their first appointment on either measure no longer scored 'high' two weeks later. Common reasons given for their mood improvement included reduced morning sickness, reassuring results from routine tests (e.g., ultrasounds), fear of miscarriage subsiding, and a sense of reassurance following their hospital visit. Many of the women were accurate in predicting at their first appointment that they would be feeling better within a few weeks.

LIMITATIONS

The administration procedure for completion of the measures on the two occasions was different. Women initially completed the measures by hand, and on the second occasion over the phone.

CONCLUSION

Half the women screened as having emotional distress - that is, scoring 'high' on self-report mood measures (i.e., EDS and HADS-A) - during their first hospital visit in pregnancy are likely to have transient distress for predictable reasons. Referring women to specialist mental health services based upon just one administration of these measures will therefore result in a large number of unnecessary referrals, thus possibly overstretching the resources available. We therefore believe that when women score high on a self-report mood measure, enquiring as to why this is the case, and about whether the woman expects to feel differently in a few weeks time, together with a second administration of the measures in a few weeks is a better practice, unless there are good clinical reasons to do otherwise. In addition, studies reporting prevalence rates of perinatal distress should not simply use a one-off administration of a self-report mood scale to state the probable rate of disorders or distress.

Maternal perinatal depression in the neonatal intensive care unit: the role of the neonatal nurse

The onset of depressive symptoms during pregnancy or the first year postpartum, termed perinatal depression, occurs in approximately 15 percent of women. Perinatal depression can have a significant negative impact on health outcomes for the mother and her infant including maternal emotional distress and parenting difficulties and infant behavioral and developmental problems. Nurses caring for patients in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) are in a key position to affect positive change in the lives of families affected by perinatal depression. An overview of antepartum and postpartum depression is provided that has been tailored to the educational needs of the neonatal nurse. A discussion of the role of neonatal nurses in the identification and treatment of perinatal depression follows in order that neonatal nurses may improve both short- and long-term outcomes for mothers, infants, and families in the NICU affected by perinatal depression.

Postpartum depression is a family affair: addressing the impact on mothers, fathers, and children

The purpose of this paper is to present research on the effects of postpartum depression (PPD) on mothers, fathers, and children that point to a re-conceptualization of PPD as a mental health condition that affects the whole family. As such, the objectives of this paper are to discuss: (1) the incidence and effects of PPD on mothers and fathers; (2) common predictors of PPD in mothers and fathers, and (3) the effects of PPD on parenting and parent-child relationships, and (4) the effects of PPD on children's health, and their cognitive and social-emotional development. Finally, the implications for screening and intervention if depression is re-conceptualized as a condition of the family are discussed.

A randomized controlled trial of screening for maternal depression with a clinical decision support system

OBJECTIVE

To determine if automated screening and just in time delivery of testing and referral materials at the point of care promotes universal screening referral rates for maternal depression.

METHODS

The Child Health Improvement through Computer Automation (CHICA) system is a decision support and electronic medical record system used in our pediatric clinics. All families of patients up to 15 months of age seen between October 2007 and July 2009 were randomized to one of three groups: (1) screening questions printed on prescreener forms (PSF) completed by mothers in the waiting room with physician alerts for positive screens, (2) everything in (1) plus 'just in time' (JIT) printed materials to aid physicians, and (3) a control group where physicians were simply reminded to screen on printed physician worksheets.

RESULTS

The main outcome of interest was whether physicians suspected a diagnosis of maternal depression and referred a mother for assistance. This occurred significantly more often in both the PSF (2.4%) and JIT groups (2.4%) than in the control group (1.2%) (OR 2.06, 95% CI 1.08 to 3.93). Compared to the control group, more mothers were noted to have depressed mood in the PSF (OR 7.93, 95% CI 4.51 to 13.96) and JIT groups (OR 8.10, 95% CI 4.61 to 14.25). Similarly, compared to the control group, more mothers had signs of anhedonia in the PSF (OR 12.58, 95% CI 5.03 to 31.46) and JIT groups (OR 13.03, 95% CI 5.21 to 32.54).

CONCLUSIONS

Clinical decision support systems like CHICA can improve the screening of maternal depression.

Healthy babies through infant-centered feeding protocol: an intervention targeting early childhood obesity in vulnerable populations

BACKGROUND

Poor feeding practices during infancy contribute to obesity risk. As infants transition from human milk and/or formula-based diets to solid foods, these practices interfere with infant feeding self-regulation and healthy growth patterns. Compared with other socioeconomic groups, lower-income mothers are more likely to experience difficulty feeding their infants. This may include misinterpreting feeding cues and using less-than-optimal feeding styles and practices, such as pressuring infants during mealtimes and prematurely introducing solid food and sweetened beverages. The Healthy Babies trial aims to determine the efficacy of a community-based randomized controlled trial of an in-home intervention with economically and educationally disadvantaged mother-infant dyads. The educational intervention is being conducted during the infant's first 6 months of life to promote healthy transition to solids during their first year and is based on the theory of planned behavior.

METHODS/DESIGN

We will describe our study protocol for a multisite randomized control trial being conducted in Colorado and Michigan with an anticipated sample of 372 economically and educationally disadvantaged African American, Hispanic, and Caucasian mothers with infants. Participants are being recruited by county community agency staff. Participants are randomly assigned to the intervention or the control group. The intervention consists of six in-home visits by a trained paraprofessional instructor followed by three reinforcement telephone contacts when the baby is 6, 8, and 10 months old. Main maternal outcomes include a) maternal responsiveness, b) feeding style, and c) feeding practices. Main infant outcome is infant growth pattern. All measures occur at baseline and when the infant is 6 and 12 months old.

DISCUSSION

If this project is successful, the expected outcomes will address whether the home-based early nutrition education intervention is effective in helping mothers develop healthy infant feeding practices that contribute to improving infant health and development and reducing the risk of early-onset childhood obesity.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Current Controlled Trials ACTRN126100000415000.

Screening for postpartum depression in a pediatric emergency department

OBJECTIVE

The objective was to determine whether a 3-question version of the Edinburgh Postpartum Depression Scale (EPDS) performs as well as the full EPDS in screening for postpartum depression in a pediatric emergency department (PED).

METHODS

Mothers of infants younger than 6 months presenting to an urban PED were enrolled. After the PED encounter, mothers were asked about demographics, health problems, insurance status, social support, food and housing security, and 3 questions from the EPDS. Mothers then completed the full EPDS. The primary outcome was the score on the full EPDS. Agreement between the 3 questions and the full EPDS for screening positive was measured. Test performance characteristics for screening positive with the 3 questions were calculated. Logistic regression determined the association between sociodemographic characteristics and screening positive. Provider impression of maternal depressive symptoms was recorded.

RESULTS

Of 195 mothers enrolled, 23% screened positive using the EPDS; 34% screened positive using the 3 questions (κ = 0.74). Compared with the EPDS, sensitivity of the 3 questions was 100%. Number of children younger than 5 years at home and having food and housing concerns were associated with screening positive. Of 44 mothers who screened positive on the full EPDS, providers identified 14 (32%) as having depressive symptoms or possibly being depressed.

CONCLUSIONS

Three questions from the EPDS performed similarly to the full EPDS in screening for postpartum depressive symptoms in a PED. Future studies are needed to confirm these findings and examine whether screening improves maternal and child health outcomes and quality-of-life concerns.

Development of a brief measure of postpartum distress

BACKGROUND

Previous measures of postpartum distress have focused on depressed mood despite evidence that postpartum anxiety is just as prevalent. The purpose of this study was to develop a new, brief screening measure to identify postpartum distress, defined as symptoms of depression and anxiety.

METHODS

In Study 1, potential items were assembled focusing on depressed mood and a variety of anxiety domains to develop a new postpartum distress scale. Women up to 12 months postpartum (n=289) completed the new scale items, the Edinburgh Postpartum Depression Scale (EPDS), and the Mood and Anxiety Symptom Questionnaire (MASQ) on the Internet. In Study 2, women up to 12 months postpartum (n=139) completed the new Postpartum Distress Measure (PDM), the EPDS, the Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory-Revised (OCI-R), and the Relationship Assessment Scale (RAS) to validate the new measure.

RESULTS

Data from Study 1 yielded a two-factor solution, and 10 items were selected for the new PDM. Six items were chosen for the PDM general distress scale, and four items for the PDM obsessive-compulsive scale. Data from Study 2 again yielded a two-factor solution, supporting both the general distress and obsessive-compulsive components. Psychometric data suggested that the measure had adequate internal consistency and construct validity.

CONCLUSIONS

The 10-item PDM comprises general distress and obsessive-compulsive factors that were obtained from a wider pool of depressive and anxiety items. These data suggest that the PDM may be a helpful tool in identifying a broader range of postpartum distress, including obsessive-compulsive symptoms that were formerly neglected in clinical screening measures. More studies are needed to confirm its clinical utility.