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Impact of numerous media on association, interfacial, and thermodynamic properties of promethazine hydrochloride (PMT) + benzethonium chloride (BTC) mixture of various composition. J Mol Liq 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molliq.2021.118287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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2
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Khadem Sadigh M, Zakerhamidi M, Shamkhali A. Contribution of environment polarity effects on the nonlinear hyperpolarizability and linear optical characteristics of some phenothiazines. J Mol Liq 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molliq.2021.116328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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3
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Kowalska J, Rok J, Rzepka Z, Wrześniok D. Drug-Induced Photosensitivity-From Light and Chemistry to Biological Reactions and Clinical Symptoms. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2021; 14:723. [PMID: 34451820 PMCID: PMC8401619 DOI: 10.3390/ph14080723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2021] [Revised: 07/23/2021] [Accepted: 07/24/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Photosensitivity is one of the most common cutaneous adverse drug reactions. There are two types of drug-induced photosensitivity: photoallergy and phototoxicity. Currently, the number of photosensitization cases is constantly increasing due to excessive exposure to sunlight, the aesthetic value of a tan, and the increasing number of photosensitizing substances in food, dietary supplements, and pharmaceutical and cosmetic products. The risk of photosensitivity reactions relates to several hundred externally and systemically administered drugs, including nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory, cardiovascular, psychotropic, antimicrobial, antihyperlipidemic, and antineoplastic drugs. Photosensitivity reactions often lead to hospitalization, additional treatment, medical management, decrease in patient's comfort, and the limitations of drug usage. Mechanisms of drug-induced photosensitivity are complex and are observed at a cellular, molecular, and biochemical level. Photoexcitation and photoconversion of drugs trigger multidirectional biological reactions, including oxidative stress, inflammation, and changes in melanin synthesis. These effects contribute to the appearance of the following symptoms: erythema, swelling, blisters, exudation, peeling, burning, itching, and hyperpigmentation of the skin. This article reviews in detail the chemical and biological basis of drug-induced photosensitivity. The following factors are considered: the chemical properties, the influence of individual ranges of sunlight, the presence of melanin biopolymers, and the defense mechanisms of particular types of tested cells.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Dorota Wrześniok
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences in Sosnowiec, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Jagiellońska 4, 41-200 Sosnowiec, Poland; (J.K.); (J.R.); (Z.R.)
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B. Rodrigues AC, Pina J, Seixas de Melo JS. Structure-relation properties of N-substituted phenothiazines in solution and solid state: Photophysical, photostability and aggregation-induced emission studies. J Mol Liq 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molliq.2020.113966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
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5
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Phototransformations of pitavastatin - The inhibitor of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase. J Photochem Photobiol A Chem 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotochem.2019.112243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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6
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Ahmad W, Rehan Zaheer M, Gupta A, Iqbal J. Photodegradation of trimeprazine triggered by self-photogenerated singlet molecular oxygen. JOURNAL OF SAUDI CHEMICAL SOCIETY 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jscs.2012.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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7
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Ambrogi V, Nocchetti M, Latterini L. Promethazine-montmorillonite inclusion complex to enhance drug photostability. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2014; 30:14612-14620. [PMID: 25407703 DOI: 10.1021/la5033898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The capability of montmorillonite as a matrix (MONT) to improve the photostability of photolabile drugs has been recently reported. Herein promethazine (PRO), which was chosen as a model drug because of its photodegradation mechanism, was intercalated into this inorganic matrix, and the effects on drug photoprotection were evaluated as well. The hybrid material (MONT-PRO) was successfully prepared with high drug loading and then was characterized by X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and FTIR spectroscopy. The spectrophotometric measurements as a function of light exposure time showed that PRO intercalation into montmorillonite markedly improved the drug photostability because a 5-fold-slower degradation rate was determined compared to that measured for PRO in homogeneous solutions; nanosecond transient absorption measurements highlighted that the interaction with the inorganic matrix made negligible the photoionization process of the drug, and its efficiency in producing singlet oxygen was strongly reduced. The MONT-PRO intercalation compound could be easily formulated in gel or ointment media without losing its photostability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valeria Ambrogi
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmaceutiche and ‡Dipartimento di Chimica, Biologia e Biotecnologie, Università degli Studi di Perugia , 06123 Perugia, Italy
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Miolo G, Salvador A, Mazzoli A, Spalletti A, Marzaro G, Chilin A. Photochemical and photobiological studies on furoquinazolines as new psoralen analogs. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY B-BIOLOGY 2014; 138:43-54. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2014.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2013] [Revised: 04/29/2014] [Accepted: 05/05/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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9
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Limones-Herrero D, Pérez-Ruiz R, Jiménez MC, Miranda MA. Retarded photooxidation of cyamemazine in biomimetic microenvironments. Photochem Photobiol 2014; 90:1012-6. [PMID: 24954660 DOI: 10.1111/php.12303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2014] [Accepted: 06/13/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Cyamemazine (CMZ) is a neuroleptic drug that mediates cutaneous phototoxicity in humans. Here, the photobehavior of CMZ has been examined within α1 -acid glycoproteins, β- and γ-cyclodextrins and SDS micelles. In all these microenvironments, CMZ emission was enhanced and blue-shifted, and its lifetime was longer. Irradiation of the entrapped drug at 355 nm, under air; led to the N,S-dioxide. Within glycoproteins or SDS micelles the reaction was clearly slower than in phosphate buffered solution (PBS); protection by cyclodextrins was less marked. Transient absorption spectroscopy in PBS revealed formation of the triplet state ((3)CMZ*) and the radical cation (CMZ(+•)). Upon addition of glycoprotein, the contribution of CMZ(+•) became negligible, whereas (3)CMZ* dominated the spectra; in addition, the triplet lifetime became considerably longer. In cyclodextrins, this occurred to a lower extent. In all microheterogeneous systems, quenching by oxygen was slower than in solution; this was most remarkable inside glycoproteins. The highest protection from photooxidation was achieved inside SDS micelles. The results are consistent with photooxidation of CMZ through photoionization and subsequent trapping of the resulting radical cation by oxygen. This reaction is extremely sensitive to the medium and constitutes an appropriate probe for localization of the drug within a variety of biological compartments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Limones-Herrero
- Departamento de Química-Instituto de Tecnología Química UPV-CSIC, Universitat Politècnica de València, Valencia, Spain
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10
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Musuka S, Srivastava S, Siyambalapitiyage Dona CW, Meek C, Leff R, Pasipanodya J, Gumbo T. Thioridazine pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic parameters "Wobble" during treatment of tuberculosis: a theoretical basis for shorter-duration curative monotherapy with congeners. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2013; 57:5870-7. [PMID: 24041886 PMCID: PMC3837896 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00829-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2013] [Accepted: 09/06/2013] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Phenothiazines are being repurposed for treatment of tuberculosis. We examined time-kill curves of thioridazine and first-line drugs against log-growth-phase and semidormant bacilli under acidic conditions and nonreplicating persistent Mycobacterium tuberculosis. While both the potency and the efficacy of first-line drugs declined dramatically as M. tuberculosis replication rates decreased, those of thioridazine improved. The mutation prevalence to 3 times the thioridazine MIC was <1 × 10(-11), better than for ≥2 first-line drugs combined. Hollow fiber system studies revealed that the relationship between sterilizing effect and pharmacodynamic indices (PDI) was characterized by an r(2) of 0.88 for peak/MIC, an r(2) of 0.47 for the area under the concentration-time curve (AUC) to MIC, and an r(2) of 0.14 for the cumulative percentage of a 24-h period that the drug concentration exceeds the MIC under steady-state pharmacokinetic conditions (%TMIC) at the end of the first week. However, the PDI linked to effect "wobbled" as the duration of therapy increased, so that by the fourth week the r(2) was 0.88 for AUC/MIC, 0.78 for %TMIC, and 0.72 for peak/MIC. This "wobble" has implications on general pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic theory, whereby efficacy is linked to only one of the three PDIs in deterministic models. The potency changed 8.9-fold from the first to the fourth weeks. The non-protein-bound AUC/MIC associated with maximal kill at the end of therapy was 50.53 (protein binding = 99.5%). This thioridazine exposure was calculated to extinguish all three M. tuberculosis metabolic populations in human lungs in only 42.9 days of monotherapy. However, this concentration exceeds the 2- to 8-mg/liter thioridazine concentration in serum known to be lethal to humans. Therefore, the way forward for phenothiazine monotherapy that also reduces therapy duration is via synthesis of less toxic congeners.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandirai Musuka
- Department of Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
| | - Shashikant Srivastava
- Department of Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
- Office of Global Health, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
| | | | - Claudia Meek
- School of Pharmacy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
| | - Richard Leff
- School of Pharmacy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
| | - Jotam Pasipanodya
- Office of Global Health, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
| | - Tawanda Gumbo
- Department of Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
- Office of Global Health, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
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UV-light effects on cytochrome c modulated by the aggregation state of phenothiazines. PLoS One 2013; 8:e76857. [PMID: 24130798 PMCID: PMC3793907 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0076857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2013] [Accepted: 08/29/2013] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The present study shows the factors that modulate the photodamage promoted by phenothiazines. Cytochrome c was irradiated with UV light for 120 min, over a pH range from 4.0 to 8.0, in the absence and in the presence of different concentrations of thioridazine (TR) and fluphenazine (FP). In the absence of phenothiazines, the maximal rate of a Soret band blue shift (nm/min) from 409 to 406 nm was obtained at pH 4.0 (0.028 nm/min). The presence of phenothiazines at the concentration range 10-25 µmol/L amplified and accelerated a cytochrome c blue shift (409 to 405 nm, at a rate = 0.041 nm/min). Above 25 µmol/L, crescent concentrations of phenothiazines contributed to cytochrome c protection with (maximal at 2500 µmol/L). Scanning electronic microscopy revealed the formation of nanostructures. The pH also influenced the effect of low phenothiazine concentrations on cytochrome c. Thus, the predominance of phenothiazine-promoted cytochrome c damage or protection depends on a balance of the following factors: the yield of photo-generated drug cation radicals, which is favored by acidic pH; the stability of the cation radicals, which is favored by the drug aggregation; and the cytochrome c structure, modulated by the pH.
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Greener synthesis and photo-antiproliferative activity of novel fluorinated benzothiazolo[2, 3-b]quinazolines. Med Chem Res 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s00044-013-0689-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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13
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Piñero-Santiago LE, García C, Lhiaubet-Vallet V, Trzcionka J, Oyola R, Torres K, Leguillú J, Miranda MA. Photooxidation mechanism of levomepromazine in different solvents. Photochem Photobiol 2013; 89:1479-89. [PMID: 23909411 DOI: 10.1111/php.12147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2013] [Accepted: 07/17/2013] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Unwanted photoinduced responses are well-known adverse effects of most promazine drugs, including levomepromazine (LPZ, Levoprome(®) or Nozinan(®)). This drug is indicated in psychiatry primarily for the treatment of schizophrenia and other schizoaffective disorders. Levomepromazine's particular sedative properties make it especially fit for use in psychiatric intensive care. Nevertheless, it is photolabile under UV-A and UV-B light in aerobic conditions resulting in the formation of its sulfoxide. The LPZ photochemistry in acetonitrile (MeCN) is completely different from that in methanol (MeOH) and phosphate buffer solutions (PBS, pH = 7.4). The major photoproduct in PBS and MeOH under aerobic conditions is levomepromazine sulfoxide (LPZSO), although the amount is considerably higher in the aqueous environment. The corresponding main photoproduct in MeCN could not be characterized. The destruction quantum yields of LPZ in PBS, MeOH and MeCN are 0.13, 0.02 and <10(-3), respectively. It is further demonstrated that LPZSO does not form by the reaction of singlet oxygen with ground-state LPZ. This oxidation product is actually produced by the reaction of the cation radical of LPZ (LPZ·(+)) with molecular oxygen. This cation radical in turn, is produced by an electron transfer process between the (3) LPZ* and ground-state molecular oxygen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis E Piñero-Santiago
- Department of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico at Humacao, Humacao, PR; Instituto de Tecnología Química UPV-CSIC, Universitat Politècnica de València, Valencia, Spain
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Trautwein C, Kümmerer K. Ready biodegradability of trifluoromethylated phenothiazine drugs, structural elucidation of their aquatic transformation products, and identification of environmental risks studied by LC-MS( n ) and QSAR. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2012; 19:3162-3177. [PMID: 22678547 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-012-1002-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2012] [Accepted: 05/21/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
The environmental fate of transformation products from organic pollutants such as drugs has become a new research area of increasing interest over the last few years. Whereas in the past mainly parent compounds or their major human metabolites were studied, new questions have arisen what compounds could be formed during incomplete degradation in the aquatic environment and what effects the resulting transformation products might have on nature and mankind. Psychiatric drugs are among the most important prescription drugs worldwide, but so far only little data is provided upon their degradation behavior. This especially accounts for tricyclic antipsychotic drugs of the phenothiazine class. Therefore, the degradation of such drugs was investigated in this study. In this study the aerobic Closed Bottle test (The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) 301D) was used to assess the ready biodegradability of three trifluoromethylated phenothiazine drugs: fluphenazine, triflupromazine, and trifluoperazine. As it is known from literature that phenothiazine drugs can easily form various photolytic transformation products under light exposure, photochemical transformation was also investigated. Since transformation products are usually not available commercially, the calculation of environmental parameters with the aid of quantitative structure activity relationship (QSAR) software was used for first evaluation of these compounds. According to the OECD test guideline, all trifluoromethylated phenothiazines had to be classified as not readily biodegradable. Chromatographic data revealed the formation of some transformation products. Comparing retention time and mass spectrometric data with the analytical results of the light exposure experiments, we found peaks with the same retention time and mass spectra. So these transformation products were not of bacterial, but photolytic, origin and are formed very quickly even under low light doses. A special chromatographic column and solvent gradient along with multiple stage mass spectrometric fragmentation experiments uncovered the presence of, in total, nine photolytic transformation products and allowed for their structural elucidation. Typical modifications of the molecules were sulfoxidation, exocyclic N-oxidation, and transformation of the trifluoromethyl to a carboxylic moiety. The obtained results of the QSAR calculations show that all transformation products are highly mobile in the aquatic environment and elimination through biotic or abiotic pathways cannot be expected. Transformation products of trifluoromethylated phenothiazine drugs have to be expected in the aquatic environment, yet nothing is known about their toxicological properties. Therefore, further risk assessment upon these drugs and their fate is strongly recommended.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoph Trautwein
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, University Medical Centre Freiburg, Breisacher Str. 115B, 79106 Freiburg, Germany.
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Kabir-ud-Din, Rub MA, Naqvi AZ. Effect of Temperature, Salts and Ureas on the Association Behavior of an Amphiphilic Phenothiazine Drug Promethazine Hydrochloride. J SURFACTANTS DETERG 2012. [DOI: 10.1007/s11743-012-1328-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
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16
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Khattak SUR, Ahmad I, Usmanghani K, Qazi MS. In vitroevaluation of betamethasone esters for phototoxic potential. Drug Chem Toxicol 2011; 35:43-7. [DOI: 10.3109/01480545.2011.588441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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17
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Miolo G, Marzano C, Gandin V, Palozzo AC, Dalzoppo D, Salvador A, Caffieri S. Photoreactivity of 5-Fluorouracil under UVB Light: Photolysis and Cytotoxicity Studies. Chem Res Toxicol 2011; 24:1319-26. [DOI: 10.1021/tx200212z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Giorgia Miolo
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Padova, Via Marzolo 5, 35131 Padova, Italy,
| | - Christine Marzano
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Padova, Via Marzolo 5, 35131 Padova, Italy,
| | - Valentina Gandin
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Padova, Via Marzolo 5, 35131 Padova, Italy,
| | - Angelo C. Palozzo
- Pharmacy Unit, Venetian Institute of Oncology, IOV-IRCCS, Via Gattamelata 64, 35128 Padova, Italy
| | - Daniele Dalzoppo
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Padova, Via Marzolo 5, 35131 Padova, Italy,
| | - Alessia Salvador
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Padova, Via Marzolo 5, 35131 Padova, Italy,
| | - Sergio Caffieri
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Padova, Via Marzolo 5, 35131 Padova, Italy,
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Miolo G, Caffieri S, Dalzoppo D, Gallocchio F, Fasani E, Beyersbergen van Henegouwen G. Photoactivation of corticosteroids in UVB-exposed skin. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY B-BIOLOGY 2011; 103:35-41. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2011.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2010] [Revised: 12/16/2010] [Accepted: 01/10/2011] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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On the mechanisms of phenothiazine-induced mitochondrial permeability transition: Thiol oxidation, strict Ca2+ dependence, and cyt c release. Biochem Pharmacol 2010; 80:1284-95. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2010.06.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2010] [Revised: 06/29/2010] [Accepted: 06/30/2010] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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20
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Borges MBD, Dos Santos CG, Yokomizo CH, Sood R, Vitovic P, Kinnunen PKJ, Rodrigues T, Nantes IL. Characterization of hydrophobic interaction and antioxidant properties of the phenothiazine nucleus in mitochondrial and model membranes. Free Radic Res 2010; 44:1054-63. [DOI: 10.3109/10715762.2010.498826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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21
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Tosa N, Olenic L, Bratu I, Turdeanu R, Turcu I. Infrared and UV-Vis spectroscopic study of 3,7,10-substituted-phenothiazine derivatives adsorbed on gold nanoparticles. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009. [DOI: 10.1088/1742-6596/182/1/012019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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22
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Alam MS, Ghosh G, Kabir-ud-Din. Light Scattering Studies of Amphiphilic Drugs Promethazine Hydrochloride and Imipramine Hydrochloride in Aqueous Electrolyte Solutions. J Phys Chem B 2008; 112:12962-7. [DOI: 10.1021/jp804238k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Md. Sayem Alam
- Department of Chemistry, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh-202 002, India
- UGC-DAE Consortium for Scientific Research, Trombay, Mumbai- 400 085, India
| | - Goutam Ghosh
- Department of Chemistry, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh-202 002, India
- UGC-DAE Consortium for Scientific Research, Trombay, Mumbai- 400 085, India
| | - Kabir-ud-Din
- Department of Chemistry, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh-202 002, India
- UGC-DAE Consortium for Scientific Research, Trombay, Mumbai- 400 085, India
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García C, Piñero L, Oyola R, Arce R. Photodegradation of 2-chloro substituted phenothiazines in alcohols. Photochem Photobiol 2008; 85:160-70. [PMID: 18673321 DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-1097.2008.00412.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The mechanisms that trigger the phototoxic response to 2-chlorophenothiazine derivatives are still unknown. To better understand the relationship between the molecular structure of halogenated phenothiazines and their phototoxic activity, their photophysics and photochemistry were studied in several alcohols. The photodestruction quantum yields were determined under anaerobic conditions using monochromatic light (313 nm). Absorption- and emission-spectroscopy, (1)H- and (13)C-NMR and GC-MS were used to characterize the photoproducts and reference compounds. An electron transfer mechanism had been previously proposed by Bunce et al. (J. Med. Chem. 22, 202-204) to explain the large difference between the photodestruction quantum yield of 2-chlorpromazine (phi = 0.46) and 2-chlorphenothiazine (phi = 0.20). According to these authors, the alkylamino chain transfers an electron to the phenothiazine moiety. Our results demonstrate that this mechanism is incorrect, because the photodestruction quantum yields of all chlorinated derivatives of this study are the same under the same conditions of solvent and irradiation wavelength. The quantum yield has no dependence on the 10-substituent, but it depends on the solvent. The percentage of each photoproduct, on the other hand, strongly depends on that substituent, but not very much on the solvent. Finally, it is demonstrated that the phototoxic effect of chlorinated phenothiazines is not related to the photodechlorination, although both processes share the same transient.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmelo García
- Department of Chemistry, Humacao Campus, University of Puerto Rico, Humacao, Puerto Rico.
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Hans RK, Agrawal N, Verma K, Misra RB, Ray RS, Farooq M. Assessment of the phototoxic potential of cosmetic products. Food Chem Toxicol 2008; 46:1653-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2008.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2006] [Revised: 12/10/2007] [Accepted: 01/02/2008] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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25
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Barbosa LRS, Itri R, Caetano W, de Sousa Neto D, Tabak M. Self-Assembling of Phenothiazine Compounds Investigated by Small-Angle X-ray Scattering and Electron Paramagnetic Resonance Spectroscopy. J Phys Chem B 2008; 112:4261-9. [DOI: 10.1021/jp710332t] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Wilker Caetano
- DFQB, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, UNESP, CEP 19060-900, Presidente Prudente, SP, Brazil
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The expedient synthesis of 1,5-benzothiazepines as a family of cytotoxic drugs. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2008; 18:114-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2007.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2007] [Revised: 10/12/2007] [Accepted: 11/01/2007] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Aaron JJ, Gaye Seye MD, Trajkovska S, Motohashi N. Bioactive Phenothiazines and Benzo[a]phenothiazines: Spectroscopic Studies, and Biological and Biomedical Properties and Applications. TOPICS IN HETEROCYCLIC CHEMISTRY 2008. [DOI: 10.1007/7081_2008_125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
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28
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Guevara EAC, de Lourdes Barriviera M, Hassón-Voloch A, Louro SRW. Chlorpromazine binding to Na+, K+-ATPase and photolabeling: involvement of the ouabain site monitored by fluorescence. Photochem Photobiol 2007; 83:914-9. [PMID: 17645663 DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-1097.2007.00077.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
This work reports the results of ultraviolet irradiation on the interaction of the phototoxic antipsychotic drug chlorpromazine (CPZ) with the sodium pump Na+, K+-ATPase. The study was performed by monitoring the fluorescence modifications of CPZ itself and of the specific probe anthroylouabain (AO). CPZ association with Na+, K+-ATPase was found to modify the kinetics of CPZ-photodegradation. It was demonstrated that UV irradiation produces a stable fluorescent photoproduct of CPZ covalently bound to Na+, K+-ATPase. The fluorescent probe AO, which specifically binds to the extracellular ouabain site of the pump, was used to localize the CPZ binding site. UV-irradiation of AO-labeled Na+, K+-ATPase treated with CPZ at concentration about 20 microM produced dose-dependent modifications of the AO fluorescence, e.g. increased quantum yield and blue shift. The results demonstrated that CPZ binds near the ouabain site. The photo-induced reaction of CPZ with AO-labeled Na+, K+-ATPase protected the ouabain site from the aqueous environment. It was also found that UV irradiation of CPZ-treated enzyme obstructs the binding of AO, which suggested occlusion of the ouabain site. This effect can be evaluated for a potential use of CPZ in photochemotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elmer A C Guevara
- Department of Physics, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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29
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Rodrigues T, dos Santos CG, Riposati A, Barbosa LRS, Di Mascio P, Itri R, Baptista MS, Nascimento OR, Nantes IL. Photochemically generated stable cation radical of phenothiazine aggregates in mildly acid buffered solutions. J Phys Chem B 2007; 110:12257-65. [PMID: 16800546 DOI: 10.1021/jp0605404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
This work characterizes, for the first time, the photochemical behavior of the antipsychotic drugs thioridazine (TR), trifluoperazine (TFP), and fluphenazine (FP) influenced by the aggregation state of the molecules. Samples of monomeric and aggregated forms of phenothiazines were submitted to 20 min of irradiation at 254 nm for intervals of 1, 5, 10, 15, 20, or 25 days. In high phenothiazine concentrations, the irradiation led to the appearance of absorbance bands in the visible region peaking at 633 nm for TR and 509 nm for FP and TFP. In the dark, at room temperature and at 4 degrees C, these bands disappeared, after approximately 15 and approximately 60 min, respectively, but reappeared after a new irradiation session. These visible bands were assigned to stable cation radicals that were characterized by direct EPR measurements and by flash photolysis. Photogenerated stable cation radicals in the phenothiazine aggregates at room temperature are formed probably due to the stacking of the thiazine phenyl moieties. For the monomeric forms of phenothiazines, the spectral changes observed during the irradiation suggested the formation of sulfoxide and hydroxylated derivates. Oxidized derivates were detected by mass spectrometry of the aggregated forms of phenothiazines (>100 microM) only in the samples irradiated for more than 20 days. In contrast, monomeric phenothiazines were totally converted to the oxidized forms after 20 min of irradiation. Surface tension measurements of phenothiazines revealed that, in concentrations above 100 microM, the drugs formed aggregates. In the case of TR, small-angle X-ray scattering measurements indicated that this compound forms large lamellar-like aggregates in aqueous solutions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiago Rodrigues
- Centro Interdisciplinar de Investigação Bioquímica, Universidade de Mogi das Cruzes, Mogi das Cruzes-SP, Brazil
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30
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Aloisi GG, Barbafina A, Canton M, Dall'Acqua F, Elisei F, Facciolo L, Latterini L, Viola G. Photophysical and photobiological behaviour of antimalarial drugs in aqueous solutions. Photochem Photobiol 2007. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-1097.2004.tb00392.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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31
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Miolo G, Ricci A, Caffieri S, Levorato L, Fasani E, Albini A. In Vitro Phototoxic Properties of Triamcinolone 16,17-acetonide and Its Main Photoproducts¶. Photochem Photobiol 2007. [DOI: 10.1562/0031-8655(2003)0780425ivppot2.0.co2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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32
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Hirakawa K, Aoshima M, Hiraku Y, Kawanishi S. Photohydrolysis of Methotrexate Produces Pteridine, Which Induces Poly-G-specific DNA Damage Through Photoinduced Electron Transfer¶. Photochem Photobiol 2007. [DOI: 10.1562/0031-8655(2002)0760467pomppw2.0.co2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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33
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Morliére P, Haigle J, Aissani K, Fillpe P, Silva JN, Santus R. An Insight into the Mechanisms of the Phototoxic Response Induced by Cyamemazine in Cultured Fibroblasts and Keratinocytes¶. Photochem Photobiol 2007. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-1097.2004.tb00006.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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34
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Morlière P, Bosca F, Miranda MA, Castell JV, Santus R. Primary Photochemical Processes of the Phototoxic Neuroleptic Cyamemazine: A Study by Laser Flash Photolysis and Steady-state Irradiation¶. Photochem Photobiol 2007. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-1097.2004.tb00126.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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35
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Miolo G, Caffieri S, Daizoppo D, Ricci A, Fasani E, Albini A. Photochemistry and Phototoxicity of Fluocinolone 16,17-Acetonide¶. Photochem Photobiol 2007. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-1097.2005.tb00186.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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36
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Arya K, Dandia A. Synthesis and cytotoxic activity of trisubstituted-1,3,5-triazines. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2007; 17:3298-304. [PMID: 17449247 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2007.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2006] [Revised: 04/01/2007] [Accepted: 04/04/2007] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
1,3,5-Triazine derivatives were screened for phototoxicity as well as the cytotoxic activities against leukemia and adenocarcinoma derived cell lines in comparison to the normal human keratinocytes. A simple and environmentally friendly procedure has been developed for the synthesis of 1,3,5-triazine derivatives under microwave irradiation in the presence of a HY zeolite. The catalyst can be recovered and reused. Thus, the procedure provides a simple and green synthetic methodology under environmentally friendly conditions. Structure-activity relationships between the chemical structures and antimycobacterial and photosynthesis-inhibiting activity of the evaluated compounds are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kapil Arya
- Indian Oil Corporation Limited, R&D Center, Faridabad, Haryana 121007, India.
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Arya K, Agarwal M. Microwave prompted multigram synthesis, structural determination, and photo-antiproliferative activity of fluorinated 4-hydroxyquinolinones. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2007; 17:86-93. [PMID: 17046250 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2006.09.082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2006] [Revised: 09/23/2006] [Accepted: 09/28/2006] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
3-Unsubstituted 4-hydroxyquinolin-2(1H)-one containing F and CF(3) substituent in ring is important pharmacological and synthetic target and basic synthones for a number of antibacterial fluoroquinolones and is promising potent and selective glycine site NMDA receptors. A simple facile one-step microwave enhanced multigram synthesis of such fluorinated quinolones in reasonable purity has been developed in excellent yield (85-94%) in 3-5 min, whereas conventional synthesis required the harsh conditions, long reaction period with use of environmentally unacceptable regents giving the required product in lower yield. The phototoxicity as well as the cytotoxic activities of the title compounds are evaluated against leukemia- and adenocarcinoma-derived cell lines in comparison to the normal human keratinocytes. Structure-activity relationships between the chemical structures and the antimycobacterial, antifungal activity of the evaluated compounds are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kapil Arya
- Indian Oil Corporation Limited, Catalyst Division, R&D Centre, Faridabad, Haryana 121007, India.
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38
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Krongauz VV, Kim HY. Competitive Consecutive Electron Transfer in Determination of Ionization Potentials: Ketene Derivatives. J Phys Chem A 2006; 110:13808-15. [PMID: 17181338 DOI: 10.1021/jp0641637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Kinetics of competitive consecutive electron transfer was used to determine ionization potentials of transient species. Kinetics of two-stage electron transfer reactions in aprotic solvent was studied using 355 nm laser flash photolysis. The concentrations of transients produced by the laser flash photolysis were monitored by their light absorption. Triplet-excited tetrachloro-p-benzo-quinone (p-chloranil) generated by a 355 nm laser flash oxidized diethyl ketene, diphenyl ketene, or phenyl ethyl ketene to form radical cations. The ketene radical cations, in turn, oxidized tertiary amine, forming ground state ketene and ammonium radical cation. The kinetics of the disappearance of ketene radical cations (and/or appearance of ammonium radical cations) due to consecutive, competitive electron transfer to ketene and p-chloranil radical cations was monitored. By monitoring kinetics in the presence of tertiary amines with different oxidation potentials, it was established that in acetonitrile the oxidation potential of diethyl ketene was 5.4 eV; for phenyl ethyl ketene, it was approximately 4.8 eV; and for diphenyl ketene, it was 4.6 eV. The results were in agreement with the oxidation potentials of ketenes computed using published data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vadim V Krongauz
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Chicago, 845 West Taylor Street, Chicago, IL 60607, USA.
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39
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Takiwaki H, Tsuchiya K, Fujita M, Miyaoka Y. Thioridazine Induces Immediate and Delayed Erythema in Photopatch Test. Photochem Photobiol 2006; 82:523-6. [PMID: 16613508 DOI: 10.1562/2005-06-08-ra-567] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Thioridazine is a phenothiazine derivative that has been used as an antipsychotic; it rarely causes photosensitization. However, we noticed that this drug induced an erythematous reaction in a photopatch test. Six volunteers were patch tested with various concentrations of thioridazine and irradiated with a range of UVA doses, and the time courses of the color of and blood flow to the test sites were monitored. The free-radical metabolites of thioridazine generated under UVA irradiation and its effects on ascorbate radical formation were examined with an electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectrometer in vitro. As a result, immediate erythema developed during UVA irradiation in most subjects when 1% thioridazine was applied for 48 h and irradiation doses were higher than 4 J cm(-2). Another peak of erythematous reaction was observed 8-12 h after irradiation. The in vitro examination detected an apparent EPR signal, which appeared when 2 mM thioridazine in air-saturated phosphate buffer was irradiated with UVA, whereas this reaction was attenuated under anaerobic conditions. The EPR signal of the ascorbate radical was augmented under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions. Thioridazine-derived oxidants and/or thioridazine radicals generated during UVA irradiation seem to play an important role in this unique phototoxic reaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hirotsugu Takiwaki
- Department of Dermatology, Institute of Health Biosciences, The University of Tokushima Graduate School, Tokushima, Japan.
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40
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Wondrak GT, Jacobson MK, Jacobson EL. Endogenous UVA-photosensitizers: mediators of skin photodamage and novel targets for skin photoprotection. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2006; 5:215-37. [PMID: 16465308 DOI: 10.1039/b504573h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 273] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Endogenous chromophores in human skin serve as photosensitizers involved in skin photocarcinogenesis and photoaging. Absorption of solar photons, particularly in the UVA region, induces the formation of photoexcited states of skin photosensitizers with subsequent generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), organic free radicals and other toxic photoproducts that mediate skin photooxidative stress. The complexity of endogenous skin photosensitizers with regard to molecular structure, pathways of formation, mechanisms of action, and the diversity of relevant skin targets has hampered progress in this area of photobiology and most likely contributed to an underestimation of the importance of endogenous sensitizers in skin photodamage. Recently, UVA-fluorophores in extracellular matrix proteins formed posttranslationally as a consequence of enzymatic maturation or spontaneous chemical damage during chronological and actinic aging have been identified as an abundant source of light-driven ROS formation in skin upstream of photooxidative cellular stress. Importantly, sensitized skin cell photodamage by this bystander mechanism occurs after photoexcitation of sensitizers contained in skin structural proteins without direct cellular photon absorption thereby enhancing the potency and range of phototoxic UVA action in deeper layers of skin. The causative role of photoexcited states in skin photodamage suggests that direct molecular antagonism of photosensitization reactions using physical quenchers of photoexcited states offers a novel chemopreventive opportunity for skin photoprotection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georg T Wondrak
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, Arizona Cancer Center, University of Arizona, 1515 North Campbell Avenue, Tucson, AZ, USA
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41
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Chimichi S, Boccalini M, Hassan MM, Viola G, Dall'Acqua F, Curini M. Synthesis, structural determination and photo-antiproliferative activity of new 3-pyrazolyl or -isoxazolyl substituted 4-hydroxy-2(1H)-quinolinones. Tetrahedron 2006. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2005.09.135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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42
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Miolo G, Levorato L, Gallocchio F, Caffieri S, Bastianon C, Zanoni R, Reddi E. In Vitro Phototoxicity of Phenothiazines: Involvement of Stable UVA Photolysis Products Formed in Aqueous Medium. Chem Res Toxicol 2005; 19:156-63. [PMID: 16411669 DOI: 10.1021/tx0502239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
This paper reports the results of an in vitro evaluation of the phototoxic potential of stable photoproducts formed by UVA photolysis of three phenothiazines, perphenazine, fluphenazine, and thioridazine, in a water environment. Perphenazine gave a single product due to dechlorination. From thioridazine, the two major products formed; the endocyclic sulfoxide and the endocyclic N-oxide in which the 2-SCH3 substituent was replaced by a hydroxy group were tested. From fluphenazine, two products have been examined as follows: an exocyclic N-piperazine oxide and a carboxylic acid arising from hydrolysis of the 2-CF3 group. The phototoxicity of the isolated photoproducts has been studied in order to determine their possible involvement in the photosensitizing effects exhibited by the parent drugs, using hemolysis and 3T3 fibroblasts viability as in vitro assays. As fluphenazine, perphenazine, and thioridazine did, some photoproducts proved phototoxic. In particular, the perphenazine dechlorinated photoproduct and the thioridazine N-oxide were found to exert phototoxic properties similar to the parent compounds. Therefore, our data suggest that some phenothiazine photoproducts may play a role in the mechanism of photosensitivity of these drugs. Because some of these photoproducts correspond to metabolic products of phenothiazines found in humans, it cannot be ruled out that metabolites of phenothiazines can be phototoxic in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Miolo
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Padova, Via F. Marzolo 5, I-35131 Padova, Italy.
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Bastianon C, Zanoni R, Miolo G, Caffieri S, Reddi E. Mitochondria and plasma membrane as targets of UVA-induced toxicity of neuroleptic drugs fluphenazine, perphenazine and thioridazine. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2005; 37:901-8. [PMID: 15694848 DOI: 10.1016/j.biocel.2004.11.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2004] [Revised: 09/30/2004] [Accepted: 11/09/2004] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
In order to gain insights into the mechanism of phototoxicity of the neuroleptic drugs fluphenazine, perphenazine and thioridazine in cultured cells, studies were performed with murine 3T3 fibroblasts, aimed at identifying some cellular targets responsible for photoinduced cell death and possible cytotoxic reactive species involved in the photosensitization process. 3T3 fibroblasts incubated with 5 microM drugs and irradiated with UVA light (up to 8 J/cm2) underwent cell death, the extent of which depended on light dose. Of the three drugs, fluphenazine exhibited the highest phototoxicity and 100% cell death was achieved with a light dose of 5 J/cm2. Superoxide dismutase and alpha-tocopherol exerted a dose-dependent protective effect against drug phototoxicity, whereas N-acetylcysteine failed to do so. These findings indicate that superoxide anion and other free radical intermediates, generated in lipophilic cellular environments, play a role in photoinduced toxicity. Phototreatment of drug-loaded cells induces release of the cytosolic enzyme lactate dehydrogenase and causes loss of activity of mitochondrial NADH dehydrogenase, indicating that plasma membrane and mitochondria are among the targets of the phototoxicity of these drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Bastianon
- Department of Biology, University of Padova, Viale G. Colombo 3, I-35121 Padova, Italy
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44
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Filipe P, Silva JN, Haigle J, Freitas JP, Fernandes A, Santus R, Morlière P. Contrasting action of flavonoids on phototoxic effects induced in human skin fibroblasts by UVA alone or UVA plus cyamemazine, a phototoxic neuroleptic. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2005; 4:420-8. [PMID: 15875075 DOI: 10.1039/b416811a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The potential protective effects of the flavanol catechin, the flavonol quercetin, the flavones, luteolin and rutin, and the isoflavones, genistein and daidzein, against the photo-oxidative stress induced by ultraviolet A radiation (UVA) and by phototoxic reactions resulting from the interaction of UVA with drugs and chemicals, has been assessed with cultured human skin fibroblasts. Lipid peroxidation and cell death have been chosen as model photobiological damage induced by UVA alone or photosensitized by cyamemazine (CMZ) and its photoproduct possessing phototoxic properties. Contrasting effects of flavonoids are observed. The flavanol, the flavonol and the flavones may protect against lipid peroxidation and cell death induced by 30 J cm(-2) of UVA alone or CMZ plus 10 J cm(-2) UVA. On the other hand, an amplification of the photodamage may be observed with isoflavones. A concentration-dependence study demonstrates that among the protective flavonoids, quercetin is the most efficient. The very effective protection brought by quercetin may result from its ability to scavenge reactive oxygen species produced by the photo-oxidative stress. However, the modification of membrane properties and the alteration of the lysosomal function by quercetin may not be neglected in these protective effects. The amplification of the photodamage by isoflavones is in sharp contrast with previous literature data demonstrating photoprotection by genistein. As a consequence, it may be concluded that an eventual antioxidant action of genistein may strongly depend on cells and photosensitizers. Furthermore such contrasting pro-versus anti-oxidant effects have to be taken into account when using flavonoid mixtures of plant extracts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paulo Filipe
- RDDM-Photobiologie, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Case Postale 26, 43 rue Cuvier, 75231, Paris Cedex 05, France.
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García C, Oyola R, Piñero LE, Arce R, Silva J, Sánchez V. Substitution and Solvent Effects on the Photophysical Properties of Several Series of 10-Alkylated Phenothiazine Derivatives. J Phys Chem A 2005; 109:3360-71. [PMID: 16833671 DOI: 10.1021/jp044530j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The photophysical properties of several 2-substituted, 10-alkylated phenothiazines were measured in several solvents to investigate the relevance of the molecular structure in their photophysics and consequent photochemistry. Because the interaction modes of each drug and its corresponding species strongly depend on the variety of microenvironments in the cells, the properties of each one of these species must also be determined separately to understand fully the mechanism of action of the drug and the mechanism of its side effects. Information on the chemical interactions of the different species at the cellular level can be inferred from the corresponding electronic properties. In this work, we present absorption, steady-state, and time-resolved emission, laser flash photolysis, and quantum theoretical results for the ground state, the first excited singlet and triplet states, and the cation radical of promazine hydrochloride (PZ), 2-chlorpromazine hydrochloride (CPZ), 2-trifluoromethylpromazine hydrochloride (TFMPZ), 2-trifluoromethylperazine dihydrochloride (TFMP), 2-thiomethylpromazine (TMPZ), and thioridazine hydrochloride (TR). The corresponding nonalkylated phenothiazines are included as references. The photophysical properties of this drug family depend more on the solvent and the 2-substituents than on the dialkylaminopropyl chain. The largest effect was found for the triplet state of the 2-halogenated derivatives in phosphate buffer (PBS). Both the quantum yield and the lifetime of this intermediate drop to less than 5% of the corresponding value in organic solvents. The triplet state of halogenated promazines is efficiently quenched by a proton-transfer mechanism, and the rate of this quenching correlates very well with the phototoxicity of the promazine drugs. Therefore, we postulate that this species is directly related to the phototoxic side effect of neuroleptic drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmelo García
- Department of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico-Humacao, Humacao, Puerto Rico.
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46
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Miolo G, Caffieri S, Dalzoppo D, Ricci A, Fasani E, Albini A. Photochemistry and Phototoxicity of Fluocinolone 16,17-Acetonide¶. Photochem Photobiol 2005. [DOI: 10.1562/2004-05-25-ra-178.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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47
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Viola G, Facciolo L, Dall'Acqua S, Di Lisa F, Canton M, Vedaldi D, Fravolini A, Tabarrini O, Cecchetti V. 6-Aminoquinolones: photostability, cellular distribution and phototoxicity. Toxicol In Vitro 2004; 18:581-92. [PMID: 15251175 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2004.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2003] [Accepted: 01/16/2004] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Three selected aminoquinolones endowed with a potent antibacterial (compounds 1 and 2) and antiviral activity (compound 3) have been evaluated for their phototoxic properties in vitro. Photostability studies of these compounds indicate that compound 3 is photostable whereas compound 1 and in particular, compound 2 are rapidly photodegraded upon UVA irradiation, yielding a toxic photoproduct. Intracellular localization of these compounds has been evaluated by means of fluorescence microscopy using tetramethylrhodamine methyl ester and acridine orange, which are specific fluorescent probes for mitochondria and lysosomes, respectively. No co-staining was observed with lysosomal stain for all the test compounds. On the contrary compound 3 was found to be specifically incorporated in mitochondria. The compounds exhibited remarkable phototoxicity in two cell culture lines: human promyelocytic leukaemia (HL-60) and human fibrosarcoma (HT-1080). The quinolone-induced photodamage was also evaluated measuring the photosensitizing cross-linking in erythrocyte ghost membranes, the strand breaks activity and oxidative damage on plasmid DNA. The results show that these derivatives are able to photoinduce crosslink of erythrocytes spectrin, whereas do not significantly photocleavage DNA directly, but single strand breaks were observed after treatment of photosensitized DNA with two base excision repair enzymes, Fpg and Endo III respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Viola
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Padova, via Marzolo 5, 35131 Padova, Italy.
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Mecca P, Tobin E, Andrew Carlson J. Photo-distributed neutrophilic drug eruption and adult respiratory distress syndrome associated with antidepressant therapy. J Cutan Pathol 2004; 31:189-94. [PMID: 14690466 DOI: 10.1111/j.0303-6987.2004.00155.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Drug reactions are well-known complications of antidepressant therapy, often related to photosensitization. Herein is reported a singular case of antidepressant (amoxapine and citalopram) and anxiolytic related (perphenazine) photo-distributed neutrophilic dermatosis and adult respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). The clinicopathologic findings displayed overlapping features with drug-induced Sweet's syndrome, acute generalized exanthematous pustulosis (AGEP), and so-called sterile neutrophilic folliculitis with perifollicular vasculopathy. Of the three medications, only amoxapine has been associated with AGEP. Treatment with high-dose systemic corticosteroids and cessation of drug therapy was followed by rapid resolution of the cutaneous eruption and respiratory distress. The possibility that neutrophil infiltration of the lung and/or accumulation of neutrophils in the skin and blood served as a source for reactive oxygen species, leading to lung injury and subsequent ARDS, is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia Mecca
- Division of Dermatology and Division of Dermatopathology, Albany Medical College, Albany, NY, USA
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Llambrich A, Lecha M. Photoinduced lichenoid reaction by thioridazine. PHOTODERMATOLOGY PHOTOIMMUNOLOGY & PHOTOMEDICINE 2004; 20:108-9. [PMID: 15030597 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0781.2004.00087.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Aloisi GG, Barbafina A, Canton M, Dall'Acqua F, Elisei F, Facciolo L, Latterini L, Viola G. Photophysical and Photobiological Behavior of Antimalarial Drugs in Aqueous Solutions. Photochem Photobiol 2004; 79:248-58. [PMID: 15115297 DOI: 10.1562/sa-03-29.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
This article describes the results of a combined photophysical and photobiological study aimed at understanding the phototoxicity mechanism of the antimalarial drugs quinine (Q), quinacrine (QC) and mefloquine (MQ). Photophysical experiments were carried out in aqueous solutions by stationary and time-resolved fluorimetry and by laser flash photolysis to obtain information on the various decay pathways of the excited states of the drugs and on transient species formed on irradiation. The results obtained showed that fluorescence and intersystem crossing account for all the adsorbed quanta for Q and MQ (quantum yield of about 0.1 and 0.9, respectively) and only for 24% in the case of QC, which has a negligible fluorescence quantum yield (0.001). Laser flash photolysis experiments evidenced, for QC and MQ, the occurrence of photoionization processes leading to the formation of the radical cations of the drugs. The effects of tryptophan and histidine on the excited states and transient species of the three drugs were also investigated. In parallel, the photoactivity of the antimalarial drugs was investigated under UV irradiation on various biological targets through a series of in vitro assays in the presence and in the absence of oxygen. Phototoxicity on 3T3 cultured fibroblasts and lipid photoperoxidation were observed for all the drugs. The photodamage produced by the drugs was also evaluated on proteins by measuring the photosensitized cross-linking of spectrin. The combined approaches were proven to be useful for understanding the mechanism of phototoxicity induced by the antimalarial drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gian Gaetano Aloisi
- Laboratorio di Chimica Fisica, Dipartimento di Chimica, Università di Perugia, Perugia, Italy.
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