Occupational fatalities due to animal-related events

Medicolegal Implications of Deaths due to Agricultural Accidents

ABSTRACT

Agriculture encompasses a variety of activities that carry with them a variety of different risks. The unsafe use of vehicles, machinery, and tools as well as animal husbandry, working at heights, and exposure to chemical, biological, and weather events may result in the deaths of agricultural workers. Inexperienced operators and/or their inappropriate conduct may lead to avoidable fatalities. Forensic pathologists operating with the support of agricultural engineers or other professionals must evaluate the death scene, the case background and circumstances, the autopsy findings, and the toxicological data to establish the factors and dynamics responsible for such accidents and deaths.The aim of this review is to focus on the diagnostic approach required, by means of an interdisciplinary approach, to identify the cause of some typical agricultural fatalities, to confirm that death was accidental, and to help exclude the possibility of homicide or suicide.

Reports to OSHA of severe occupational injuries due to animals, 2015-2021

BACKGROUND

Workers can be injured by animals such as mammals and insects. Previous studies found that most animal-related occupational fatalities were caused by horses and cattle. We analyzed characteristics of recent nonfatal severe animal-related injuries in US workers.

METHODS

The severe injury reports (SIR) database, collected by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration, contains employer self-reports of inpatient hospitalizations and amputations. We used 2015-2021 SIR data to assess properties of animal-related injuries, including the type of animal involved, the nature of the injury, and the industry of the employer. Industry-specific incidence rates were calculated.

RESULTS

We identified 788 severe animal-related injuries during the 7-year study period. Mammals caused over half of these injuries (476; 60.4%), followed by insects, arachnids, and mites (183; 23.2%) and reptiles (127; 16.1%). Two-thirds (529; 67.1%) of animal-related injuries were traumatic, while 211 (28.0%) injuries were due to poisoning or allergic reaction. The highest observed incidence was in livestock merchant wholesalers (59.6 severe injuries per 100,000 workers per year); injuries in this industry were often due to cattle. Mail delivery and landscape architecture, two industries in which animal contact is atypical, were also among the 10 industries with the highest incidence.

CONCLUSIONS

Workers in many industries experienced severe injuries due to animals. Among workers whose job involves animal contact, cattle workers appear to be at highest risk. Outdoor workers in some industries require protection from bites of dogs, snakes, and insects.

Understanding and treating equine behavioural problems

Behaviour-related issues are common in horses. Many 'undesirable behaviours' pose important safety concerns for the human handlers / riders / carers, as well as welfare concerns for the horse. Undesirable behaviours can also devalue a horse, or result in the horse being re-homed, relinquished, or euthanased. Undesirable behaviours occur for a range of reasons. These include physiological causes, poor management, and the use of inappropriate or poorly applied handling and training techniques. The potential contribution of each of these aspects must be considered when attempting to reduce or eliminate undesirable behaviours. Effectively modifying the existing behaviour includes investigation and treatment of potential physiological causes, assessing and adjusting existing handling, husbandry and management, and undertaking behaviour modifying training. Unlike in the treatment of dogs and cats, the use of psychotropic agents is uncommon in equine behaviour medicine but the benefits of using these agents in appropriate cases is gaining recognition. This review discusses potential causes for the development and maintenance of undesirable behaviours in horses and highlights the various considerations involved in determining the most appropriate course for reducing or eliminating these behaviours. There is also a brief discussion about the potential role of psychotropic agents as an additional component of an overall behaviour modification plan to reduce or eliminate undesirable behaviours in horses.

Occupational Fatalities Due to Mammal-Related Accidents in Japan, 2000-2019

INTRODUCTION

Animal-related fatal accidents occur annually while individuals are outside working. This study intended to evaluate the trends of occupational fatal accidents related to mammals and compare them with nonoccupational accidents.

METHODS

We collected occupational and nonoccupational fatalities related to mammals between 2000 and 2019 from data on fatal occupational accident cases certified by the Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare, Japan, in addition to other statistics from relevant ministries, media reports such as newspapers, and academic case reports.

RESULTS

A total of 109 fatal accidents related to mammals were confirmed as occurring during work, and 129 were confirmed as taking place outside of work. Of the former, accidents among livestock farmers and horse racing-related workers accounted for about half. Among the accidents not related to work, dog attacks, infectious diseases from cats or dogs, traffic accidents with wild animals, and bear attacks during wild vegetable picking were common. Deaths from infectious diseases caused by dogs and cats have rarely been reported in the mass media.

CONCLUSIONS

Although the number of fatal occupational accidents related to mammals is not large, we concluded that it is necessary to continue preventive measures centered on accidents at livestock farms and in horse racing-related workplaces. It is also necessary to inform people about the risks of infectious diseases mediated by dogs and cats.

Animal-related injuries and fatalities: evidence from a large-scale population-based cross-sectional survey in rural Bangladesh

OBJECTIVE

This study determines the magnitude and pattern of animal-related injury mortalities and morbidities in rural Bangladesh.

DESIGN AND SETTING

A cross-sectional survey was conducted in 51 Unions of 7 subdistricts of Bangladesh from June 2013 to September 2013.

PARTICIPANTS

A total of approximately 1.17 million individuals across all age and gender profiles were included in the survey. The participants had to be residents of the seven subdistricts and have provided consent to participate in the study.

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOME MEASURES

Animal-related injury characteristics and demographic information was collected in the study. Frequency, proportion and 95% CIs of variables such as type of animal, type of animal attack, activity of the person prior to attack and the seasonality of the injury were reported. Data was then statistically analysed for associations between injury and sociodemographic characteristics.

RESULTS

The incidence rate of fatal and non-fatal animal-related injuries across all ages were 0.7 (95% CI 0.4 to 1.4) and 1635.3 (95% CI 1612.0 to 1658.0) per 100 000 populations, respectively. Non-fatal animal-related injury rates were highest among adults 18 years and older (1820.6 per 100 000 population (1777.2 to 1865.1)), and in males across all age groups. The most common animal injury was wasp/hornet/bee sting (49%), followed by cow/buffalo (25%), dog bite (9%) and snake bites (9%).

CONCLUSIONS

Animal-related injuries are an important public health issue in rural Bangladesh. The incidence of animal-related morbidities was found high in the study area. Males, school-going and productive age groups were at high risk. Immediate attention should be given to prevent these events.

Benefits of Animal Exposure on Veterinary Students' Understanding of Equine Behaviour and Self-Assessed Equine Handling Skills

Simple Summary

First-year veterinary students often lack recognition of horse behavioural signals and exposure to animals. Based on self-assessments, we studied their level of knowledge of equine behaviour and their equine handling competency before starting the programme. A previous exposure to horses and/or companion animals (on their own property) seemed to confer an advantage in the interpretation of equine behaviour and self-reported equine handling competency.

Abstract

Horses are one of the most dangerous animals veterinarians have to work with. For many veterinary students, their first exposure to horses occurs during practical classes. To evaluate the level of knowledge students have of equine behaviour and their equine handling competency when entering the programme, 214 veterinary students (1st and 4th year) were recruited to participate in a questionnaire. Participants were asked to choose one out of 12 terms that best represented the affective state of a horse in a picture, and to self-assess their equine handling skills. Half (n = 56/115) of the first-year students correctly interpreted the horse’s behaviour. The majority had (1) a poor understanding of equine learning mechanisms and (2) poor self-rated equine handling skills. A history of pet ownership (p = 0.027) and the presence of horses on their family property (p = 0.001) were significantly associated with a correct understanding of equine behaviour. Fourth-year students were three times more likely to accurately interpret the horse’s behaviour (p = 0.01) and rated their handling skills higher than first-year students (p = 0.006). These results suggest that previous animal experience confers a considerable advantage to interpret equine behaviour and highlight the critical importance of practical training in the veterinary programme.

A tale of two cities: A comparison of urban and rural trauma in Medieval Denmark

OBJECTIVE

This study explores the differences in frequency and type of trauma found in two Medieval cemeteries in Denmark, as well as the cultural and community implications of those differences.

MATERIALS

We examined 235 skeletons from the cemetery at Tjærby (rural) and 170 skeletons from the cemetery at Randers (urban) for trauma from the Medieval period in Denmark, 1050 to 1536 CE.

METHODS

Trauma was assessed through macroscopic examination and odds ratio and relative risk assessments were run to assess the difference in trauma.

RESULTS

There was no significant difference in the presence of trauma between the rural and urban cemeteries or between males and females. There were some significant differences in relative risk for trauma between the two cemeteries.

CONCLUSIONS

The division and variation in trauma between the two cemeteries is most likely related to differences in economy and occupation.

SIGNIFICANCE

There are relatively few studies that examine the difference in inherent risk of trauma between rural and urban Medieval communities, especially in Denmark. This research also adds to the growing body of literature in paleopathology that uses epidemiology to explore the parallels between patterns of trauma and community lifeways.

LIMITATIONS

The cemeteries are approximately 5 km distance from each other so similarities in the sample could be a result of location.

SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

A wider sample of Medieval cemeteries in Denmark needs be added to this analysis to provide a more complete picture of trauma patterns during this time period.

Causes and Mechanisms of Death in Fatal Water Buffalo Attacks

Deaths due to buffalo attack have not been well described. A 72-year-old man was trampled by a water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) while attempting to move the animal within an enclosed area at an abattoir. At autopsy, there were numerous injuries involving the chest, head, neck, and left upper arm. Blunt force injury had resulted in multiple rib fractures with a flail chest and fracture/dislocation of the mid-cervical vertebrae caused either by physical crushing by the animal against the walls of the enclosure or by stomping. There was also evidence of crush asphyxia with bilateral conjunctival hemorrhages and petechial hemorrhages. In addition, there was a deep degloving injury of the upper left arm compatible with goring by one of the buffalo horns. While large animal attacks may result in death from multiple injuries, careful dissection and examination of specific injuries at autopsy may clarify the complex interaction of lethal mechanisms.

Fatal Injury Caused by a Ram (Ovis Aries) Attack

Animal-inflicted injuries to humans are a major public health problem around the world resulting in great morbidity, money loss, and mortality. They are related to wild and domestic animals alike. Animals can cause injuries by various mechanisms--biting, stinging, crushing, goring, stomping, butting, kicking, pecking, etc. We present a case of a ram's attack with fatal consequences. A 4-year-old, 120 kg jezersko-solčava breed ram with prior history of aggressive behavior inflicted multiple injuries to his 83-year-old owner, who died in the hospital a few hours later due to severe blunt force injuries sustained in the attack. The autopsy revealed the cause of death to be multiple injuries of the thorax and the head. Sheep, even though they are not considered aggressive or large farm animals such as cattle and horses, can inflict serious injuries with devastating results.

Risk assessment of cattle handling on pasture using work environment screening tool

Working with beef cattle in an open area or while on pasture has been shown to expose workers to a high risk of work-related injury. Prior research on this problem has been conducted using mail surveys, interviews, self-reporting of work practices and injury experiences, and summaries of published injury data, including media reports. Prior research on injury prevention has largely focused on worker education in a specific cultural or geographical setting. A pilot study was conducted to test the cross-cultural usability of the Working Environment Screening Tool in Agriculture (WEST-AG), a modification of the WEST, developed for Swedish industrial applications, to assess risk factors associated with farmers working with cattle being raised largely on pasture as compared with cattle raised in confined feeding operations. Swedish and English language versions of WEST-AG were developed and pilot-tested on a convenient sample of eight Swedish and eight Indiana farms that raise beef cattle primarily on pasture. On-site observations were conducted independently by Swedish and US agricultural safety professionals and documented using photography and a 15-risk-of-injury component on an 11-degree linear scale. Comparisons were made between independent observations documented from the Swedish and Indiana application of the WEST, including collective assessment of photographic record, and the results reported. Key findings included (a) a higher level of observed risks on Indiana farms studied as compared with their Swedish counterparts; (b) high levels of worker exposure to cattle, especially mature breeding bulls, on both sets of farms; (c) a higher frequency of self-reported farm-related injuries than anticipated on both Swedish and Indiana farms; (d) substantially different economic, social, cultural, and regulatory forces that influence small-operation Swedish and Indiana beef producers' decisions regarding adoption of safer work practices, including use of new and safer technology; and (e) differences between the interpretations of the levels or severity of risks observed between the Swedish and US researchers conducting the assessments based upon regulatory and cultural context. Recommendations for enhancing the methodology of applying the WEST-AG to beef production are discussed, along with utilizing the findings to recommend steps to enhance worker safety on small beef farms, regardless of cultural setting. The most significant contribution of this study was to explore the viability of an assessment tool for agricultural workplaces that could be used internationally to enhance worker safety and health regardless of cultural and political differences.

A 51-year-old woman crushed by an elephant trunk

Wild and exotic animal attacks are not common in the United States. Animal-related injuries in the United States are usually caused by dog bites, followed by cattle and horse injuries. Exotic animal attacks can occur when the animals are provoked, depressed, or housed improperly by owners. We report the case of a 51-year-old woman who sustained multiple systemic traumatic injuries after she was pinned to a fence by an elephant's trunk. Upon arrival in the emergency department, she was hypothermic with a temperature of 35.1ºC (95.1ºF), hypotensive to 94/60 mm Hg after 5 L crystalloid, tachycardic at 108 beats/min, and intubated with oxygen saturation of 100%. Tranexamic acid was administered in addition to starting a massive transfusion protocol. Injuries included bilateral multiple rib fractures, left abdominal wall degloving injury, right pneumothorax, right hemothorax, left chest wall puncture wound, grade IV splenic laceration, 3 grade III liver lacerations, retroperitoneal hematoma, and degloving injuries to bilateral posterior thighs requiring more than 30 operations. Why should an emergency physician be aware of this? Several factors need to be considered when evaluating animal-related injuries, including type, age, and sex of the animal. Multisystem traumatic injuries should be assumed when a large animal is involved. Prehospital care and transport time are vital to a patient's survival in both urban and rural settings. During the initial resuscitation, administering antibiotics tailored to the specific animal can greatly decrease risk of infection and morbidity. Additionally, tetanus immunoglobulin, tetanus toxoid, and rabies immunoglobulin and vaccine may be needed, unless the victim has been previously vaccinated.

Self-reported musculoskeletal disorders of the distal upper extremities and the neck in German veterinarians: a cross-sectional study

Background

Veterinary work is a physically demanding profession and entails the risk of injuries and diseases of the musculoskeletal system, particularly in the upper body. The prevalence of musculoskeletal disorders (MSD), the consequences and work-related accidents in German veterinarians were investigated. Work-related and individual factors associated with MSD of upper extremities and the neck were analyzed.

Methods

In 2011, a self-reporting Standardized Nordic Questionnaire was mailed to registered veterinarians in seven federal medical associations in Germany. A total of 3174 (38.4%) veterinarians responded. Logistic regression analysis was used to determine the association between risk factors and MSD-related impairment of daily activities.

Results

MSD in the neck (66.6%) and shoulder (60.5%) were more prevalent than in the hand (34.5%) or elbow (24.5%). Normal activities were affected in 28.7% (neck), 29.5% (shoulder), 19.4% (hand) and 14% (elbow) of the respondents. MSD in the upper body occurred significantly more often in large animal practitioners. Accidents that resulted in MSD were most frequently reported in the hand/wrist (14.3%) or in the shoulder (10.8%). The majority of all accidents in the distal upper extremities were caused by animals than by other factors (19% vs. 9.2%). For each area of the body, a specific set of individual and work-related factors contributed significantly to severe MSD: Older age, gender, previous injuries, BMI, practice type, veterinary procedures such as dentistry, rectal procedures and obstetric procedures as well as high demands and personal burnout.

Conclusion

From the perspective of occupational health and safety, it seems to be necessary to improve accident prevention and to optimize the ergonomics of specific tasks. Our data suggest the need for target group-specific preventive measures that also focus on the psychological factors at work.

Potential dangers of hay bailing

Individuals engaged in farming have higher risks of injury and death from trauma than many other workers. Fatalities most often involve tractor-related incident such as roll-overs. Although it is also recognized that farm machinery may result in serious injuries and death, little has been reported on problems associated with hay baling, transport and storage. Case 1: A 43-year-old man trying to dislodge jammed hay in a hay baler had either been pulled, or had fallen, into the baler, where he had been crushed, rotated and then cocooned within a hay bale. The body showed extensive blunt trauma to the head, neck, chest, abdomen, pelvis and limbs, with burning from a fire that subsequently started within the overheated machine. Case 2: A 58-year-old man was crushed between the moving arms of a hay shuttle and a safety fence. Death was attributed to blunt chest and abdominal trauma with crush asphyxia. Case 3: A 56-year-old man fell some distance from the top of stacked hay bales fracturing his neck and causing virtual transection of his cervical spinal cord. These cases demonstrate rare forms of farm deaths that may be associated with the creation (baling), moving (shuttling) and storage of hay bales. All forms of farm machinery should be treated circumspectly, given the possibility that serious injury or death may result from inattention or inappropriate handling. Temporary stacking of hay bales may create high work platforms that risk falls with lethal consequences.

Cattle-related trauma, injuries and deaths

Cattle are socioeconomically important animals with frequent and close contact with humans. Due to the size and power of these animals, injury and deaths related to contact with cows and bulls do occur. It is impossible to be certain of the worldwide burden of morbidity and mortality. It is clear however that trauma presents as specific injury patterns, often related to particular activities. Research identifies groups such as dairy farmers, veterinarians and abattoir workers who are at a higher risk of injury. The general public also increase their risk of injury just by being near cattle. The assessment and treatment of injuries due to cattle trauma should follow some clear and well-defined principles. Reduction in the frequency and severity of injury is possible and should be a priority.

An uncommon accident and unusual cause of death--a fatal domestic ram attack

Domestic animal attacks are not common; their fatal attacks are even rarer. Herein, a case of a 78-year-old woman attacked by a ram is presented. She sustained multiple head and chest injuries. The autopsy findings and the inspection of the scene revealed that the fatal aortic injury had been caused by direct force from the front, which subsequently caused a powerful anteroposterior chest compression, resulting in an incomplete tear by flexion and compression of the aortic arch. The aortic dissection propagated in both an ante- and retrograde direction, with intact adventitia. However, due to a rise in pressure in the formed false lumen, dissection propagated downward to the base of the heart, and further into the subepicardial adipose tissue, forming a subepicardial hematoma. This hematoma gradually compressed the proximal sections of the coronary arteries, impairing their filling, and producing a myocardial ischemia. In addition, circulation had probably been already disturbed by the right-sided pneumothorax, as well as a possible pneumomediastinum.

Cattle-caused fatalities in a province of western Turkey: 1996-2010 autopsy results

Cattle-caused injuries and deaths are much more than predicted. The aim of this research is to determine the prevalence of cattle-caused fatalities and the factors affecting it in a province of western Turkey. The court files on cattle-caused fatalities during a 15-year period between 1996 and 2010 were explored. The proportion of forensic-qualified deaths from the total of 3753 was 0.9% (35/3753). Most of the cases were between the ages of 18 and 65 (60%). Most deaths occurred in the spring and summer months compared with autumn and winter months (9 and 22 vs. 3 and 1, respectively). The mortality rate was much higher in men compared with women (94.3% and 5.7%, respectively). The majority of deaths were caused by injuries on the chest (71.4%). The reason for most deaths was due to hemopneumothorax and lung injury (71.4%). Predicting the behavior of cattle may not always be possible, as such, it is advisable that one wears protective equipment when dealing with cattle.

Camel-related injuries: prospective study of 212 patients

BACKGROUND

Camel-related injuries have been less well studied than other animal-related injuries. We aimed to study prospectively the incidence, mechanism, distribution of injury, and outcome of patients admitted to hospital with camel-related injuries in Al-Ain, United Arab Emirates.

METHODS

All patients who were admitted to Al-Ain Hospital with a camel-related injury were prospectively studied during the period of October 2001 to January 2010. Patient's demography, time of injury, mechanism of injury, and distribution and severity of injury were studied.

RESULTS

A total of 212 patients, all male, with a median age of 28 years (5-89 years) were studied. The estimated incidence of hospitalized camel-related injured patients in Al-Ain City was 6.88 per 100,000 population per year. Camel kicks were most common (36.8 %) followed by a fall from a camel (26.4 %) and camel bites (25.0 %). Camel kicks and falling from a camel were more common during the hot month of August, and camel bites were more common during the rutting season (November to February). Patients with a kick-related injury had a significantly higher rate of maxillofacial fractures compared with other mechanisms. Spinal injuries occurred significantly more often in vehicle occupants who collided with camels compared with other mechanisms (3/7 compared with 7/205, p = 0.0022, Fisher's exact test). Twelve patients (5.7 %) were admitted to the intensive care unit. The mean hospital stay was 8.6 days (1-103 days). Two patients died (overall mortality 1 %).

CONCLUSIONS

Understanding the biomechanisms and patterns of injury and correlating them with the behavior of the camel is important for identification and prevention of camel-related injuries.

Bush animal attacks: management of complex injuries in a resource-limited setting

INTRODUCTION

Though animal-related injuries and fatalities have been documented throughout the world, the variety of attacks by wild animals native to rural East Africa are less commonly described. Given the proximity of our northwestern Tanzania hospital to Lake Victoria, Lake Tanganyika, and the Serengeti National Park, and presentation of several patients attacked by bush animals and suffering a variety of complex injuries, we sought to report the pattern of attacks and surgical management in a resource-limited setting.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Four patients who were admitted to the northwestern Tanzania tertiary referral hospital, Bugando Medical Centre (BMC), in 2010-2011 suffered attacks by different bush animals: hyena, elephant, crocodile, and vervet monkey. These patients were triaged as trauma patients in the Casualty Ward, then admitted for inpatient monitoring and treatment. Their outcomes were followed to discharge.

RESULTS

The age and gender of the patients attacked was variable, though all but the pediatric patient were participating in food gathering or guarding activities in rural locations at the time of the attacks. All patients required surgical management of their injuries, which included debridement and closure of wounds, chest tube insertion, amputation, and external fixation of an extremity fracture. All patients survived and were discharged home.

DISCUSSION

Though human injuries secondary to encounters with undomesticated animals such as cows, moose, and camel are reported, they often are indirect traumas resulting from road traffic collisions. Snake attacks are well documented and common. However, this series of unique bush animal attacks describes the initial and surgical management of human injuries in the resource-limited setting of the developing world.

CONCLUSION

Animal attacks are common throughout the world, but their pattern may vary in Africa throughout jungle and bush environmental settings. It is important to understand the management of these attacks in resource-limited health care environment. Further, the growing population and human encroachment on previously wild habitats such as the northwestern Tanzania bush argues for increased community awareness to assist in prevention of human injuries by animals.

Animal-related fatalities--part I: characteristic autopsy findings and variable causes of death associated with blunt and sharp trauma

Animals may be responsible for an array of potentially lethal injuries. Blunt force injuries characteristically involve larger animals such as cattle or horses that may kick, crush, or trample a victim causing head and facial injuries. Farm workers in particular are at high risk of lethal injuries involving the head and torso. Significant blunt trauma may be found in vehicle occupants after collisions with large animals such as camels or moose. Rarely, zookeepers may be crushed by particularly massive animals such as elephants. Sharp force injuries usually involve carnivore bites, most often from dogs with a "hole and tear" pattern of wounding. Injuries from animals such as alligators and sharks may have a significant component of crushing. Incised wounds may result in death from exsanguination and air embolism. On occasion, blunt or sharp trauma from animal activity may be confused with postmortem damage or with inflicted injury from an assault.

Cattle associated trauma--a one year prospective study of all injuries

AIM

To prospectively study all types and frequency of injuries resulting from direct contact with cattle in an occupational setting.

METHODS

Prospective evaluation of all injuries due to direct contact with cattle presenting to the Emergency Department (ED) of a rural District General Hospital over a one year period.

RESULTS

Injuries related to cattle were a common reason for presentation to the ED. Some clear patterns of injury were noted. Injuries to the upper extremity were particularly common, especially the hand and wrist and were associated with particular activities and mechanisms. Truncal injuries were less common but do have the potential for serious morbidity and mortality as noted in previous studies.

CONCLUSIONS

Injuries related to direct contact with cattle are common. We noted an as yet unreported common pattern of injury to the hands of workers kicked whilst handling cattle at milking time. We also noted the previously recognized potential for serious injury due to more proximal body trauma whilst working with large animals. Whilst there is some work available pertaining to injury prevention in this industry, our study demonstrates a need for further work to be done to minimize and prevent future injuries.

Are wild animals suited to a travelling circus life?

A comprehensive synopsis of the welfare of captive, wild (ie non-domesticated) animals in travelling circuses is missing. We examined circus animal welfare and, specifically, behaviour, health, living and travelling conditions. We compared the conditions of non-domesticated animals in circuses with their counterparts kept in zoos. Data on circus animals were very scarce; where data were absent, we inferred likely welfare implications based on zoo data. Circus animals spent the majority of the day confined, about 1-9% of the day performing/training and the remaining time in exercise pens. Exercise pens were significantly smaller than minimum zoo standards for outdoor enclosures. Behavioural budgets were restricted, with circus animals spending a great amount of time performing stereotypies, especially when shackled or confined in beast wagons. A higher degree of stereotyping in circuses may be indicative of poorer welfare. Inadequate diet and housing conditions, and the effects of repeated performances, can lead to significant health problems. Circus animals travel frequently and the associated forced movement, human handling, noise, trailer movement and confinement are important stressors. Although there is no conclusive evidence as to whether animals habituate to travel, confinement in beast wagons for long timeperiods is a definite welfare concern. Circuses have a limited ability to make improvements, such as increased space, environmental enrichment and appropriate social housing. Consequently, we argue that non-domesticated animals, suitable for circus life, should exhibit low space requirements, simple social structures, low cognitive function, non-specialist ecological requirements and an ability to be transported without adverse welfare effects. None of the commonest species exhibited by circuses, such as elephants and large felids, currently meet these criteria. We conclude that the species of non-domesticated animals commonly kept in circuses appear the least suited to a circus life.

Animal-caused fatalities in New Mexico, 1993-2004

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate animal-caused fatalities in New Mexico using data collected during medicolegal death investigations, including toxicology, survival interval, and circumstances.

METHODS

A retrospective review of the computerized database and hard copies of files from a centralized, statewide medical examiner's office, excluding deaths due to zoonotic diseases and motor vehicle collisions involving animals.

RESULTS

Between 1993 and 2004, 63 deaths caused by animals were reported in New Mexico. The majority of decedents were male (46/63, 73%) and non-Hispanic white (33/63, 52%). Horses were the most commonly implicated animals, with 43 (68%) deaths due to a person being thrown from, crushed, dragged, or kicked by a horse. Cattle caused 9 deaths (14%), dogs caused 3 (5%), and venomous animals caused 3, whereas a bear was responsible for 1 death. Ten decedents (16%) had alcohol present at the time of death, and 8 would have been over the legal blood alcohol concentration for driving (0.08%). Ten deaths (16%) were work-related and included deaths of jockeys and ranch workers. The majority of deaths (42/63, 67%) occurred in remote locations, potentially delaying access to treatment. Survival intervals ranged from 1 day to 33 years.

CONCLUSIONS

Whereas both human and animal behavior can be difficult to predict, a review of animal-caused fatalities investigated by a medical examiner revealed that in many cases, deaths could have been prevented by either the use of protective gear or alterations in human behavior.

Large-animal handling at the Colorado State University College of Veterinary Medicine

Colleges of veterinary medicine face many challenges in teaching the handling of large animals. It is imperative that students be taught how to manage large animals, however, not only for their safety but for that of their clients and of the animals themselves. Confident, safe, and efficient handling can improve job satisfaction and may encourage students to enter large-animal practice. There is wide variation in the large-animal-handling components of US veterinary curricula.