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McKinley JP, O'Connell GD. Review of state-of-the-art micro and macro-bioreactors for the intervertebral disc. J Biomech 2024; 165:111964. [PMID: 38412621 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2024.111964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2023] [Revised: 01/02/2024] [Accepted: 01/23/2024] [Indexed: 02/29/2024]
Abstract
Lower back pain continues to be a global epidemic, limiting quality of life and ability to work, due in large part to symptomatic disc degeneration. Development of more effective and less invasive biological strategies are needed to treat disc degeneration. In vitro models such as macro- or micro-bioreactors or mechanically active organ-chips hold great promise in reducing the need for animal studies that may have limited clinical translatability, due to harsher and more complex mechanical loading environments in human discs than in most animal models. This review highlights the complex loading conditions of the disc in situ, evaluates state-of-the-art designs for applying such complex loads across multiple length scales, from macro-bioreactors that load whole discs to organ-chips that aim to replicate cellular or engineered tissue loading. Emphasis was placed on the rapidly evolving more customizable organ-chips, given their greater potential for studying the progression and treatment of symptomatic disc degeneration. Lastly, this review identifies new trends and challenges for using organ-chips to assess therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan P McKinley
- Berkeley BioMechanics Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California, Berkeley 94720, CA, USA.
| | - Grace D O'Connell
- Berkeley BioMechanics Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California, Berkeley 94720, CA, USA.
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2
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Yu Z, Shea K, Stankovic T. The Application of a Multi-Material Flexible Chain Mail for the Design of an Artificial Spinal Disc to Reproduce Natural Nonlinear and Anisotropic Rotational Behavior. 3D PRINTING AND ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING 2023; 10:1238-1250. [PMID: 38143713 PMCID: PMC10734901 DOI: 10.1089/3dp.2021.0299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2023]
Abstract
Inspired by the potential of architected materials for achieving biomimicking functionalities and the advancement of multi-material additive manufacturing to fabricate parts with complex structures and heterogeneous material distributions, this study investigates the feasibility of using a multi-material, flexible chain mail sheet for the design of an additively manufactured artificial spinal disc for reproducing patient-specific anisotropic and nonlinear rotational behaviors. The application of a chain mail-based structure is motivated by its similarities in behaviors compared with a natural disc's fiber network that likewise has negligible bending stiffness and shape-changing ability. The proposed approach for the chain mail sheet design includes an initial characterization of the uniaxial tensile responses of the chain mail unit cell defined as the basic building block of the chain mail sheet, modeling and response calculation, and material optimization. Results show that the additively manufactured chain mail sheet is not only able to exhibit a natural strain-stiffening rotational response but also is able to reproduce natural anisotropy of three natural disc specimens in the six most common rotational scenarios in daily life. This study shows the potential of additively manufactured mechanical-metamaterials-inspired structures for implant design to restore natural mechanics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiyang Yu
- Engineering Design and Computing Laboratory, Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Kristina Shea
- Engineering Design and Computing Laboratory, Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Tino Stankovic
- Engineering Design and Computing Laboratory, Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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3
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Ying Y, Cai K, Cai X, Zhang K, Qiu R, Jiang G, Luo K. Recent advances in the repair of degenerative intervertebral disc for preclinical applications. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2023; 11:1259731. [PMID: 37811372 PMCID: PMC10557490 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2023.1259731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2023] [Accepted: 09/14/2023] [Indexed: 10/10/2023] Open
Abstract
The intervertebral disc (IVD) is a load-bearing, avascular tissue that cushions pressure and increases flexibility in the spine. Under the influence of obesity, injury, and reduced nutrient supply, it develops pathological changes such as fibular annulus (AF) injury, disc herniation, and inflammation, eventually leading to intervertebral disc degeneration (IDD). Lower back pain (LBP) caused by IDD is a severe chronic disorder that severely affects patients' quality of life and has a substantial socioeconomic impact. Patients may consider surgical treatment after conservative treatment has failed. However, the broken AF cannot be repaired after surgery, and the incidence of re-protrusion and reoccurring pain is high, possibly leading to a degeneration of the adjacent vertebrae. Therefore, effective treatment strategies must be explored to repair and prevent IDD. This paper systematically reviews recent advances in repairing IVD, describes its advantages and shortcomings, and explores the future direction of repair technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yijian Ying
- Health Science Center, Ningbo University, Ningbo, Zhejiang, China
| | - Kaiwen Cai
- Department of Orthopaedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Ningbo University, Ningbo, Zhejiang, China
| | - Xiongxiong Cai
- Health Science Center, Ningbo University, Ningbo, Zhejiang, China
| | - Kai Zhang
- Department of Orthopaedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Ningbo University, Ningbo, Zhejiang, China
| | - Rongzhang Qiu
- Health Science Center, Ningbo University, Ningbo, Zhejiang, China
| | - Guoqiang Jiang
- Department of Orthopaedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Ningbo University, Ningbo, Zhejiang, China
| | - Kefeng Luo
- Department of Orthopaedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Ningbo University, Ningbo, Zhejiang, China
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Jiang Y, Shi K, Zhou L, He M, Zhu C, Wang J, Li J, Li Y, Liu L, Sun D, Feng G, Yi Y, Zhang L. 3D-printed auxetic-structured intervertebral disc implant for potential treatment of lumbar herniated disc. Bioact Mater 2023; 20:528-538. [PMID: 35846840 PMCID: PMC9253410 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioactmat.2022.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2021] [Revised: 05/26/2022] [Accepted: 06/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study, a novel artificial intervertebral disc implant with modified “Bucklicrystal” structure was designed and 3D printed using thermoplastic polyurethane. The new implant has a unique auxetic structure with building blocks joined “face-to-face”. The accompanied negative Poisson’s ratio enables its excellent energy absorption and stability under compression. The deformation and load distribution behavior of the implant under various loading conditions (bending, torsion, extension and flexion) has been thoroughly evaluated through finite element method. Results show that, compared to natural intervertebral disc and conventional 3D implant, our new implant exhibits more effective stress transfer and attenuation under practical loading conditions. The implant's ability to contract laterally under compression can be potentially used to alleviate the symptoms of lumbar disc herniation. Finally, the biocompatibility of the implant was assessed in vitro and its ability to restore the physiological function of the disc segment was validated in vivo using an animal model. Auxetic-structured IVD implant features negative Poisson's ratio (NPR) behavior. Modified “Bucklicrystal”structure exhibits better energy absorption and stability. The stress effectively and evenly transfers/attenuates in the auxetic implant. Auxetic implant potentially alleviates the symptoms of lumbar disc herniation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yulin Jiang
- Analytical and Testing Center, Department of Orthopedic Surgery and Orthopedic Research Institute, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610065, China
| | - Kun Shi
- Analytical and Testing Center, Department of Orthopedic Surgery and Orthopedic Research Institute, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610065, China
| | - Luonan Zhou
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Southwest University of Science and Technology, Mianyang, 621010, China
| | - Miaomiao He
- Analytical and Testing Center, Department of Orthopedic Surgery and Orthopedic Research Institute, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610065, China
| | - Ce Zhu
- Analytical and Testing Center, Department of Orthopedic Surgery and Orthopedic Research Institute, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610065, China
| | - Jingcheng Wang
- Analytical and Testing Center, Department of Orthopedic Surgery and Orthopedic Research Institute, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610065, China
| | - Jianhua Li
- Analytical and Testing Center, Department of Orthopedic Surgery and Orthopedic Research Institute, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610065, China
| | - Yubao Li
- Analytical and Testing Center, Department of Orthopedic Surgery and Orthopedic Research Institute, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610065, China
| | - Limin Liu
- Analytical and Testing Center, Department of Orthopedic Surgery and Orthopedic Research Institute, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610065, China
| | - Dan Sun
- Advanced Composite Research Group (ACRG), School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Queen's University Belfast, BT9 5AH, UK
| | - Ganjun Feng
- Analytical and Testing Center, Department of Orthopedic Surgery and Orthopedic Research Institute, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610065, China
- Corresponding author
| | - Yong Yi
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Southwest University of Science and Technology, Mianyang, 621010, China
| | - Li Zhang
- Analytical and Testing Center, Department of Orthopedic Surgery and Orthopedic Research Institute, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610065, China
- Corresponding author.
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5
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Huxman C, Butler J. A Systematic Review of Compliant Mechanisms as Orthopedic Implants. J Med Device 2021. [DOI: 10.1115/1.4052011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Currently available motion-preserving orthopedic implants offer many advantages but have several limitations to their use, including short device lifetime, high part count, loss of natural kinematics, and wear-induced osteolysis and implant loosening. Compliant mechanisms have been used to address some of these problems as they offer several potential advantages - namely, wear reduction, reduced part count, and the ability to achieve complex, patient-specific motion profiles. This article provides a systematic review of compliant mechanisms as orthopedic implants. Based on the PRISMA guidelines for an efficient review, this work identified fourteen implantable orthopedic devices that seek to restore anatomical motion by utilizing mechanical compliance. From reviewing these implants and their results, advantages and consequences for each are summarized. Trends were also identified in how these devices are capable of mitigating common challenges found in orthopedic design. Design considerations for the development of future compliant orthopedic implants are proposed and discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Connor Huxman
- School of Engineering Design, Technology, and Professional Programs, The Pennsylvania State University, 213 Hammond Building, University Park, PA 16802
| | - Jared Butler
- School of Engineering Design, Technology, and Professional Programs, The Pennsylvania State University, 213 Hammond Building, University Park, PA 16802
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DeLucca JF, Amin D, Peloquin JM, Vresilovic EJ, Costi JJ, Elliott DM. Off-axis response due to mechanical coupling across all six degrees of freedom in the human disc. JOR Spine 2019; 2:e1047. [PMID: 31463461 PMCID: PMC6686826 DOI: 10.1002/jsp2.1047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2018] [Revised: 02/14/2019] [Accepted: 02/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The kinematics of the intervertebral disc are defined by six degrees of freedom (DOF): three translations (Tz: axial compression, Tx: lateral shear, and Ty: anterior-posterior shear) and three rotations (Rz: torsion, Rx: flexion-extension, and Ry: lateral bending). There is some evidence that the six DOFs are mechanically coupled, such that loading in one DOF affects the mechanics of the other five "off-axis" DOFs, however, most studies have not controlled and/or measured all six DOFs simultaneously. Additionally, the relationships between disc geometry and disc mechanics are important for evaluation of data from different sized donor and patient discs. The objectives of this study were to quantify the mechanical behavior of the intervertebral disc in all six degrees of freedom (DOFs), measure the coupling between the applied motion in each DOF with the resulting off-axis motions, and test the hypothesis that disc geometry influences these mechanical behaviors. All off-axis displacements and rotations were significantly correlated with the applied DOF and were of similar magnitude as physiologically relevant motion, confirming that off-axis coupling is an important mechanical response. Interestingly, there were pairs of DOFs that were especially strongly coupled: lateral shear (Tx) and lateral bending (Ry), anterior-posterior shear (Ty) and flexion-extension (Rx), and compression (Tz) and torsion (Rz). Large off-axis shears may contribute to injury risk in bending and flexion. In addition, the disc responded to shear (Tx, Ty) and rotational loading (Rx, Ry, and Rz) by increasing in disc height in order to maintain the applied compressive load. Quantifying these mechanical behaviors across all six DOF are critical for designing and testing disc therapies, such as implants and tissue engineered constructs, and also for validating finite element models.
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Affiliation(s)
- John F. DeLucca
- Department of Biomedical EngineeringUniversity of DelawareNewarkDelaware
| | - Dhara Amin
- Biomechanics and Implants Research Group, The Medical Device Research InstituteCollege of Science and Engineering, Flinders UniversityAdelaideAustralia
| | - John M. Peloquin
- Department of Biomedical EngineeringUniversity of DelawareNewarkDelaware
| | | | - John J. Costi
- Biomechanics and Implants Research Group, The Medical Device Research InstituteCollege of Science and Engineering, Flinders UniversityAdelaideAustralia
| | - Dawn M. Elliott
- Department of Biomedical EngineeringUniversity of DelawareNewarkDelaware
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Alinejad Y, Adoungotchodo A, Grant MP, Epure LM, Antoniou J, Mwale F, Lerouge S. Injectable Chitosan Hydrogels with Enhanced Mechanical Properties for Nucleus Pulposus Regeneration. Tissue Eng Part A 2019; 25:303-313. [DOI: 10.1089/ten.tea.2018.0170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Yasaman Alinejad
- Laboratory of Endovascular Biomaterials (LBeV), Centre de Recherche du CHUM (CRCHUM), Montreal, Canada
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, École de Technologie Supérieure (ETS), Montreal, Canada
- Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, SMBD-Jewish General Hospital, Montreal, Canada
| | - Atma Adoungotchodo
- Laboratory of Endovascular Biomaterials (LBeV), Centre de Recherche du CHUM (CRCHUM), Montreal, Canada
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, École de Technologie Supérieure (ETS), Montreal, Canada
- Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, SMBD-Jewish General Hospital, Montreal, Canada
| | - Michael P. Grant
- Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, SMBD-Jewish General Hospital, Montreal, Canada
| | - Laura M. Epure
- Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, SMBD-Jewish General Hospital, Montreal, Canada
| | - John Antoniou
- Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, SMBD-Jewish General Hospital, Montreal, Canada
- Division of Orthopaedic Surgery, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
| | - Fackson Mwale
- Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, SMBD-Jewish General Hospital, Montreal, Canada
- Division of Orthopaedic Surgery, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
| | - Sophie Lerouge
- Laboratory of Endovascular Biomaterials (LBeV), Centre de Recherche du CHUM (CRCHUM), Montreal, Canada
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, École de Technologie Supérieure (ETS), Montreal, Canada
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8
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Gao D, Fang Z, Sun Y, Li F. [Clinical outcomes of allograft Cages in transforaminal lumbar interbody fusion]. ZHONGGUO XIU FU CHONG JIAN WAI KE ZA ZHI = ZHONGGUO XIUFU CHONGJIAN WAIKE ZAZHI = CHINESE JOURNAL OF REPARATIVE AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERY 2018; 32:927-932. [PMID: 30129319 DOI: 10.7507/1002-1892.201801125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Objective To explore the fusion effect of allograft Cages on transforaminal lumbar interbody fusion (TLIF). Methods The clinical data of 30 patients (38 vertebral segments) who underwent TLIF with allograft interbody fusion Cages between January 2015 and January 2017 were retrospectively analysed. There were 25 males and 5 females with an average age of 56.9 years (range, 44-72 years). The lesions included 20 cases of lumbar disc herniation, 7 cases of lumbar spondylolisthesis, and 3 cases of lumbar spinal stenosis. The operation section included 4 cases of L 3, 4, 13 cases of L 4, 5, 5 cases of L 5, S 1, 6 cases of L 4, 5-L 5, S 1, and 2 cases of L 3, 4-L 4, 5. The disease duration was 6-36 months (mean, 12 months). The clinical effectiveness was evaluated by visual analogue scale (VAS) score, Oswestry disability index (ODI), and Japanese Orthopaedic Association (JOA) score at preoperation, 3 months and 6 months after operation, and last follow-up. The fusion rate was evaluated by anteroposterior and lateral X-ray films and CT three-dimensional reconstruction at 3 and 6 months after operation. The intervertebral space height was measured on anteroposterior and lateral X-ray films at preoperation, 3 days, 3 months, and 6 months after operation. Results The operation time was 2.1-4.3 hours (mean, 3.1 hours), and the intraoperative blood loss was 150-820 mL (mean, 407.5 mL). The follow-up time was 8-25 months (mean, 16.4 months). One Cage split at 6 months after operation without Cage movement and neurologic symptoms; none of the other patients had Cage prolapse, displacement, and fragmentation. No local or systemic allergy or infection signs was found in all patients. No nerve compression or symptoms was observed during the follow-up. The postoperative VAS score, ODI score, and JOA score improved significantly when compared with preoperative scores ( P<0.05); and the scores at 6 months and at last follow-up were significantly improved when compared with those at 3 months after operation ( P<0.05); but no significant difference was found between at 6 months and at last follow-up ( P>0.05). The fusion rate was 55.3% (21/38), 92.1% (35/38), and 100% (38/38) at 3 months, 6 months, and last follow-up postoperatively. The intervertebral space height was increased significantly at 3 days, 3 months, 6 months, and last follow-up postoperatively when compared with preoperative ones ( P<0.05); and the loss of intervertebral space height was significant at last follow-up when compared with postoperative at 3 days ( P<0.05). Conclusion The allograft interbody fusion Cage contributes to the spine interbody fusion by providing an earlier stability and higher fusion rate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Delong Gao
- Department of Orthopaedics, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan Hubei, 430030, P.R.China
| | - Zhong Fang
- Department of Orthopaedics, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan Hubei, 430030, P.R.China
| | - Yunlong Sun
- Department of Orthopaedics, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan Hubei, 430030, P.R.China
| | - Feng Li
- Department of Orthopaedics, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan Hubei, 430030,
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9
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In Vitro Maturation and In Vivo Integration and Function of an Engineered Cell-Seeded Disc-like Angle Ply Structure (DAPS) for Total Disc Arthroplasty. Sci Rep 2017; 7:15765. [PMID: 29150639 PMCID: PMC5693867 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-15887-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2017] [Accepted: 10/30/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Total disc replacement with an engineered substitute is a promising avenue for treating advanced intervertebral disc disease. Toward this goal, we developed cell-seeded disc-like angle ply structures (DAPS) and showed through in vitro studies that these constructs mature to match native disc composition, structure, and function with long-term culture. We then evaluated DAPS performance in an in vivo rat model of total disc replacement; over 5 weeks in vivo, DAPS maintained their structure, prevented intervertebral bony fusion, and matched native disc mechanical function at physiologic loads in situ. However, DAPS rapidly lost proteoglycan post-implantation and did not integrate into adjacent vertebrae. To address this, we modified the design to include polymer endplates to interface the DAPS with adjacent vertebrae, and showed that this modification mitigated in vivo proteoglycan loss while maintaining mechanical function and promoting integration. Together, these data demonstrate that cell-seeded engineered discs can replicate many characteristics of the native disc and are a viable option for total disc arthroplasty.
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10
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Xia T, Liu W, Yang L. A review of gradient stiffness hydrogels used in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. J Biomed Mater Res A 2017; 105:1799-1812. [DOI: 10.1002/jbm.a.36034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2016] [Revised: 01/30/2017] [Accepted: 02/08/2017] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tingting Xia
- Key Laboratory of Biorheological Science and Technology, Ministry of Education, Bioengineering College; Chongqing University; Chongqing 400044 China
| | - Wanqian Liu
- Key Laboratory of Biorheological Science and Technology, Ministry of Education, Bioengineering College; Chongqing University; Chongqing 400044 China
| | - Li Yang
- Key Laboratory of Biorheological Science and Technology, Ministry of Education, Bioengineering College; Chongqing University; Chongqing 400044 China
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11
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Holsgrove TP, Gill HS, Miles AW, Gheduzzi S. Dynamic, six-axis stiffness matrix characteristics of the intact intervertebral disc and a disc replacement. Proc Inst Mech Eng H 2015; 229:769-77. [PMID: 26503838 DOI: 10.1177/0954411915610601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Thorough pre-testing is critical in assessing the likely in vivo performance of spinal devices prior to clinical use. However, there is a lack of data available concerning the dynamic testing of lumbar (porcine model) total disc replacements in all six axes under preload conditions. The aim of this study was to provide new data comparing porcine lumbar spinal specimen stiffness between the intact state and after the implantation of an unconstrained total disc replacement, in 6 degrees of freedom. The dynamic, stiffness matrix testing of six porcine lumbar isolated disc specimens was completed using triangle waves at a test frequency of 0.1 Hz. An axial preload of 500 N was applied during all testing. Specimens were tested both in the intact condition and after the implantation of the total disc replacement. Sixteen key stiffness terms were identified for the comparison of the intact and total disc replacement specimens, comprising the 6 principal stiffness terms and 10 key off-axis stiffness terms. The total disc replacement specimens were significantly different to the intact specimens in 12 of these key terms including all six principal stiffness terms. The implantation of the total disc replacement resulted in a mean reduction in the principal stiffness terms of 100%, 91%, and 98% in lateral bending, flexion-extension, and axial rotation, respectively. The novel findings of this study have demonstrated that the unconstrained, low-friction total disc replacement does not replicate the stiffness of the intact specimens. It is likely that other low-friction total disc replacements would produce similar results due to stiffness being actively minimised as part of the design of low-friction devices, without the introduction of stiffening elements or mechanisms to more accurately replicate the mechanical properties of the natural intervertebral disc. This study has demonstrated, for the first time, a method for the quantitative comparative mechanical function testing of total disc replacements and provides baseline data for the development of future devices.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Anthony W Miles
- Centre for Orthopaedic Biomechanics, University of Bath, Bath, UK
| | - Sabina Gheduzzi
- Centre for Orthopaedic Biomechanics, University of Bath, Bath, UK
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12
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Holsgrove TP, Nayak NR, Welch WC, Winkelstein BA. Advanced Multi-Axis Spine Testing: Clinical Relevance and Research Recommendations. Int J Spine Surg 2015; 9:34. [PMID: 26273552 DOI: 10.14444/2034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Back pain and spinal degeneration affect a large proportion of the general population. The economic burden of spinal degeneration is significant, and the treatment of spinal degeneration represents a large proportion of healthcare costs. However, spinal surgery does not always provide improved clinical outcomes compared to non-surgical alternatives, and modern interventions, such as total disc replacement, may not offer clinically relevant improvements over more established procedures. Although psychological and socioeconomic factors play an important role in the development and response to back pain, the variation in clinical success is also related to the complexity of the spine, and the multi-faceted manner by which spinal degeneration often occurs. The successful surgical treatment of degenerative spinal conditions requires collaboration between surgeons, engineers, and scientists in order to provide a multi-disciplinary approach to managing the complete condition. In this review, we provide relevant background from both the clinical and the basic research perspectives, which is synthesized into several examples and recommendations for consideration in increasing translational research between communities with the goal of providing improved knowledge and care. Current clinical imaging, and multi-axis testing machines, offer great promise for future research by combining invivo kinematics and loading with in-vitro testing in six degrees of freedom to offer more accurate predictions of the performance of new spinal instrumentation. Upon synthesis of the literature, it is recommended that in-vitro tests strive to recreate as many aspects of the in-vivo environment as possible, and that a physiological preload is a critical factor in assessing spinal biomechanics in the laboratory. A greater link between surgical procedures, and the outcomes in all three anatomical planes should be considered in both the in-vivo and in-vitro settings, to provide data relevant to quality of motion, and stability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy P Holsgrove
- Department of Bioengineering, School of Engineering and Applied Science, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Nikhil R Nayak
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
| | - William C Welch
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Beth A Winkelstein
- Department of Bioengineering, School of Engineering and Applied Science, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
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Choy ATH, Chan BP. A Structurally and Functionally Biomimetic Biphasic Scaffold for Intervertebral Disc Tissue Engineering. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0131827. [PMID: 26115332 PMCID: PMC4482706 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0131827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2015] [Accepted: 06/05/2015] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Tissue engineering offers high hopes for the treatment of intervertebral disc (IVD) degeneration. Whereas scaffolds of the disc nucleus and annulus have been extensively studied, a truly biomimetic and mechanically functional biphasic scaffold using naturally occurring extracellular matrix is yet to be developed. Here, a biphasic scaffold was fabricated with collagen and glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), two of the most abundant extracellular matrix components in the IVD. Following fabrication, the scaffold was characterized and benchmarked against native disc. The biphasic scaffold was composed of a collagen-GAG co-precipitate making up the nucleus pulposus-like core, and this was encapsulated in multiple lamellae of photochemically crosslinked collagen membranes comprising the annulus fibrosus-like lamellae. On mechanical testing, the height of our engineered disc recovered by ~82-89% in an annulus-independent manner, when compared with the 99% recovery exhibited by native disc. The annulus-independent nature of disc height recovery suggests that the fluid replacement function of the engineered nucleus pulposus core might mimic this hitherto unique feature of native disc. Biphasic scaffolds comprised of 10 annulus fibrosus-like lamellae had the best overall mechanical performance among the various designs owing to their similarity to native disc in most aspects, including elastic compliance during creep and recovery, and viscous compliance during recovery. However, the dynamic mechanical performance (including dynamic stiffness and damping factor) of all the biphasic scaffolds was similar to that of the native discs. This study contributes to the rationalized design and development of a biomimetic and mechanically viable biphasic scaffold for IVD tissue engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Tsz Hang Choy
- Tissue Engineering Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China
| | - Barbara Pui Chan
- Tissue Engineering Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China
- * E-mail:
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Martin JT, Milby AH, Chiaro JA, Kim DH, Hebela NM, Smith LJ, Elliott DM, Mauck RL. Translation of an engineered nanofibrous disc-like angle-ply structure for intervertebral disc replacement in a small animal model. Acta Biomater 2014; 10:2473-81. [PMID: 24560621 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2014.02.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2013] [Revised: 01/13/2014] [Accepted: 02/11/2014] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Intervertebral disc degeneration has been implicated in the etiology of low back pain; however, the current surgical strategies for treating symptomatic disc disease are limited. A variety of materials have been developed to replace disc components, including the nucleus pulposus (NP), the annulus fibrosus (AF) and their combination into disc-like engineered constructs. We have previously shown that layers of electrospun poly(ε-caprolactone) scaffold, mimicking the hierarchical organization of the native AF, can achieve functional parity with native tissue. Likewise, we have combined these structures with cell-seeded hydrogels (as an NP replacement) to form disc-like angle-ply structures (DAPS). The objective of this study was to develop a model for the evaluation of DAPS in vivo. Through a series of studies, we developed a surgical approach to replace the rat caudal disc with an acellular DAPS and then stabilized the motion segment via external fixation. We then optimized cell infiltration into DAPS by including sacrificial poly(ethylene oxide) layers interspersed throughout the angle-ply structure. Our findings illustrate that DAPS are stable in the caudal spine, are infiltrated by cells from the peri-implant space and that infiltration is expedited by providing additional routes for cell migration. These findings establish a new in vivo platform in which to evaluate and optimize the design of functional disc replacements.
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Affiliation(s)
- John T Martin
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Pennsylvania, McKay Orthopaedic Research Laboratory, 36th Street and Hamilton Walk, 424 Stemmler Hall, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6081, USA; Department of Mechanical Engineering and Applied Mechanics, University of Pennsylvania, 220 South 33rd Street, 229 Towne Building, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6315, USA; Translational Musculoskeletal Research Center, Philadelphia VA Medical Center, 3900 Woodland Avenue, Building 21, Room A200, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Andrew H Milby
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Pennsylvania, McKay Orthopaedic Research Laboratory, 36th Street and Hamilton Walk, 424 Stemmler Hall, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6081, USA; Translational Musculoskeletal Research Center, Philadelphia VA Medical Center, 3900 Woodland Avenue, Building 21, Room A200, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Joseph A Chiaro
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Pennsylvania, McKay Orthopaedic Research Laboratory, 36th Street and Hamilton Walk, 424 Stemmler Hall, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6081, USA; Translational Musculoskeletal Research Center, Philadelphia VA Medical Center, 3900 Woodland Avenue, Building 21, Room A200, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Dong Hwa Kim
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Pennsylvania, McKay Orthopaedic Research Laboratory, 36th Street and Hamilton Walk, 424 Stemmler Hall, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6081, USA
| | - Nader M Hebela
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Pennsylvania, McKay Orthopaedic Research Laboratory, 36th Street and Hamilton Walk, 424 Stemmler Hall, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6081, USA; Translational Musculoskeletal Research Center, Philadelphia VA Medical Center, 3900 Woodland Avenue, Building 21, Room A200, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Lachlan J Smith
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Pennsylvania, McKay Orthopaedic Research Laboratory, 36th Street and Hamilton Walk, 424 Stemmler Hall, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6081, USA; Translational Musculoskeletal Research Center, Philadelphia VA Medical Center, 3900 Woodland Avenue, Building 21, Room A200, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Department of Neurosurgery, University of Pennsylvania, 3400 Spruce Street, 3rd Floor, Silverstein Pavilion, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Dawn M Elliott
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Delaware, 125 E. Delaware Avenue, Newark, DE 19716, USA
| | - Robert L Mauck
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Pennsylvania, McKay Orthopaedic Research Laboratory, 36th Street and Hamilton Walk, 424 Stemmler Hall, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6081, USA; Department of Mechanical Engineering and Applied Mechanics, University of Pennsylvania, 220 South 33rd Street, 229 Towne Building, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6315, USA; Department of Bioengineering, University of Pennsylvania, 210 South 33rd Street, Suite 240, Skirkanich Hall, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6321, USA; Translational Musculoskeletal Research Center, Philadelphia VA Medical Center, 3900 Woodland Avenue, Building 21, Room A200, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
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Guterl CC, Torre OM, Purmessur D, Dave K, Likhitpanichkul M, Hecht AC, Nicoll SB, Iatridis JC. Characterization of mechanics and cytocompatibility of fibrin-genipin annulus fibrosus sealant with the addition of cell adhesion molecules. Tissue Eng Part A 2014; 20:2536-45. [PMID: 24684314 DOI: 10.1089/ten.tea.2012.0714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
There is an unmet clinical need for a biomaterial sealant capable of repairing small annulus fibrosus (AF) defects. Causes of these defects include painful intervertebral disc herniations, microdiscectomy procedures, morbidity associated with needle puncture injury from discography, and future nucleus replacement procedures. This study describes the enhancements of a fibrin gel through genipin crosslinking (FibGen) and the addition of the cell adhesion molecules (CAMs), fibronectin and collagen. The gel's performance as a potential AF sealant is assessed using a series of in vitro tests. FibGen gels with CAMs had equivalent adhesive strength, gene expression, cytomorphology, and cell proliferation as fibrin alone. However, FibGen gels had enhanced material behaviors that were tunable to higher shear stiffness values and approximated human annulus tissue as compared with fibrin alone, were more dimensionally stable, and had a slower in vitro degradation rate. Cytomorphology of human AF cells cultured on FibGen gels exhibited increased elongation compared with fibrin alone, and the addition of CAMs to FibGen did not significantly affect elongation. This FibGen gel offers the promise of being used as a sealant material to repair small AF defects or to be used in combination with other biomaterials as an adhesive for larger defects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clare C Guterl
- 1 Leni and Peter W. May Department of Orthopaedics, Mount Sinai School of Medicine , New York, New York
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16
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Wei A, Shen B, Williams L, Diwan A. Mesenchymal stem cells: potential application in intervertebral disc regeneration. Transl Pediatr 2014; 3:71-90. [PMID: 26835326 PMCID: PMC4729108 DOI: 10.3978/j.issn.2224-4336.2014.03.05] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic low back pain is one of the leading public health problems in developed countries. Degeneration of the intervertebral disc (IVD) is a major pathological process implicated in low back pain, which is characterized by cellular apoptosis and senescence with reduced synthesis of extracellular matrix (ECM). Currently, there is no clinical therapy targeting the reversal of disc degeneration. Recent advances in cellular and molecular biology have provided an exciting approach to disc regeneration that focuses on the delivery of viable cells to the degenerative disc. Adult mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are multipotent stem cells with self-renewal capacities and are able to differentiate into diverse specialized cell types, including chondrocyte lineages. The potential of stem cell therapy in disc degeneration is to repopulate the disc with viable cells capable of producing the ECM and restoring damaged tissue. The present literature review summarizes recent advances in basic research and clinical trials of MSCs to provide an outline of the key roles of MSCs therapies in disc repair. The review also discusses the controversies, challenges and therapeutic concepts for the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aiqun Wei
- 1 Department of Orthopaedic Research, Orthopaedic Research Institute, St George Hospital University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia ; 2 Department of Cell & Molecular Therapies, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Sydney, Australia
| | - Bojiang Shen
- 1 Department of Orthopaedic Research, Orthopaedic Research Institute, St George Hospital University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia ; 2 Department of Cell & Molecular Therapies, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Sydney, Australia
| | - Lisa Williams
- 1 Department of Orthopaedic Research, Orthopaedic Research Institute, St George Hospital University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia ; 2 Department of Cell & Molecular Therapies, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Sydney, Australia
| | - Ashish Diwan
- 1 Department of Orthopaedic Research, Orthopaedic Research Institute, St George Hospital University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia ; 2 Department of Cell & Molecular Therapies, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Sydney, Australia
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Smith LJ, Gorth DJ, Showalter BL, Chiaro JA, Beattie EE, Elliott DM, Mauck RL, Chen W, Malhotra NR. In vitro characterization of a stem-cell-seeded triple-interpenetrating-network hydrogel for functional regeneration of the nucleus pulposus. Tissue Eng Part A 2014; 20:1841-9. [PMID: 24410394 DOI: 10.1089/ten.tea.2013.0516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Intervertebral disc degeneration is implicated as a major cause of low-back pain. There is a pressing need for new regenerative therapies for disc degeneration that restore native tissue structure and mechanical function. To that end we investigated the therapeutic potential of an injectable, triple-interpenetrating-network hydrogel comprised of dextran, chitosan, and teleostean, for functional regeneration of the nucleus pulposus (NP) of the intervertebral disc in a series of biomechanical, cytotoxicity, and tissue engineering studies. Biomechanical properties were evaluated as a function of gelation time, with the hydrogel reaching ∼90% of steady-state aggregate modulus within 10 h. Hydrogel mechanical properties evaluated in confined and unconfined compression were comparable to native human NP properties. To confirm containment within the disc under physiological loading, toluidine-blue-labeled hydrogel was injected into human cadaveric spine segments after creation of a nucleotomy defect, and the segments were subjected to 10,000 cycles of loading. Gross analysis demonstrated no implant extrusion, and further, that the hydrogel interdigitated well with native NP. Constructs were next surface-seeded with NP cells and cultured for 14 days, confirming lack of hydrogel cytotoxicity, with the hydrogel maintaining NP cell viability and promoting proliferation. Next, to evaluate the potential of the hydrogel to support cell-mediated matrix production, constructs were seeded with mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and cultured under prochondrogenic conditions for up to 42 days. Importantly, the hydrogel maintained MSC viability and promoted proliferation, as evidenced by increasing DNA content with culture duration. MSCs differentiated along a chondrogenic lineage, evidenced by upregulation of aggrecan and collagen II mRNA, and increased GAG and collagen content, and mechanical properties with increasing culture duration. Collectively, these results establish the therapeutic potential of this novel hydrogel for functional regeneration of the NP. Future work will confirm the ability of this hydrogel to normalize the mechanical stability of cadaveric human motion segments, and advance the material toward human translation using preclinical large-animal models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lachlan J Smith
- 1 Department of Neurosurgery, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania , Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
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18
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Cartilage derived morphogenetic protein 2 – A potential therapy for intervertebral disc regeneration? Biologicals 2014; 42:65-73. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biologicals.2013.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2013] [Revised: 12/13/2013] [Accepted: 12/19/2013] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
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Song JE, Kim EY, Ahn WY, Lee YJ, Lee D, Reis R, Khang G. The potential of DBP gels containing intervertebral disc cells for annulus fibrosus supplementation:in vivo. J Tissue Eng Regen Med 2013; 9:E98-107. [DOI: 10.1002/term.1699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2011] [Revised: 11/13/2012] [Accepted: 12/20/2012] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jeong Eun Song
- Department of BIN Fusion Technology, Department of Polymer-Nano Science and Technology and Polymer Fusion Research Centre; Chonbuk National University; Jeonju Korea
| | - Eun Young Kim
- Department of BIN Fusion Technology, Department of Polymer-Nano Science and Technology and Polymer Fusion Research Centre; Chonbuk National University; Jeonju Korea
| | - Woo Young Ahn
- Department of BIN Fusion Technology, Department of Polymer-Nano Science and Technology and Polymer Fusion Research Centre; Chonbuk National University; Jeonju Korea
| | - Yu Jeong Lee
- Department of BIN Fusion Technology, Department of Polymer-Nano Science and Technology and Polymer Fusion Research Centre; Chonbuk National University; Jeonju Korea
| | - Dongwon Lee
- Department of BIN Fusion Technology, Department of Polymer-Nano Science and Technology and Polymer Fusion Research Centre; Chonbuk National University; Jeonju Korea
| | - Rui Reis
- 3Bs Research Group - Biomaterials, Biodegradables and Biomimetics; University of Minho, Headquarters of European Institute of Excellence on Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine; Guimaraes Portugal
| | - Gilson Khang
- Department of BIN Fusion Technology, Department of Polymer-Nano Science and Technology and Polymer Fusion Research Centre; Chonbuk National University; Jeonju Korea
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Malonzo C, Chan SCW, Kabiri A, Eglin D, Grad S, Bonél HM, Benneker LM, Gantenbein-Ritter B. A papain-induced disc degeneration model for the assessment of thermo-reversible hydrogel-cells therapeutic approach. J Tissue Eng Regen Med 2013; 9:E167-76. [DOI: 10.1002/term.1667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2012] [Revised: 09/20/2012] [Accepted: 11/05/2012] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- C. Malonzo
- Tissue and Organ Mechano Biology, Institute for Surgical Technology and Biomechanics; University of Bern; Switzerland
| | - S. C. W. Chan
- Tissue and Organ Mechano Biology, Institute for Surgical Technology and Biomechanics; University of Bern; Switzerland
| | - A. Kabiri
- Tissue and Organ Mechano Biology, Institute for Surgical Technology and Biomechanics; University of Bern; Switzerland
| | - D. Eglin
- AO Research Institute; Davos Switzerland
| | - S. Grad
- AO Research Institute; Davos Switzerland
| | - H. M. Bonél
- Institute for Diagnostic, Pediatric and Interventional Radiology, Inselspital; University of Bern; Switzerland
| | - L. M. Benneker
- Orthopaedic Department; Inselspital, University of Bern; Switzerland
| | - B. Gantenbein-Ritter
- Tissue and Organ Mechano Biology, Institute for Surgical Technology and Biomechanics; University of Bern; Switzerland
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21
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Meir AR, Freeman BJC, Fraser RD, Fowler SM. Ten-year survival and clinical outcome of the AcroFlex lumbar disc replacement for the treatment of symptomatic disc degeneration. Spine J 2013; 13:13-21. [PMID: 23384880 DOI: 10.1016/j.spinee.2012.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2012] [Revised: 10/12/2012] [Accepted: 12/09/2012] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND CONTEXT We have previously reported on the osseointegration, stability, and preserved motion of the AcroFlex lumbar disc replacement (LDR) in a nonhuman primate model. Detailed biomechanical testing of the device predicted implant survival for at least 10 years of in vivo use. Significant improvements in the clinical outcome were reported at 2 years. However, mechanical failure of the polyolefin rubber was detected by fine-cut computed tomography (CT) in a number of subjects within 2 years. As a result, no further devices were implanted. PURPOSE To report on the 10-year survival and clinical outcome of the AcroFlex elastomeric LDR when used for the treatment of one- or two-level symptomatic disc degeneration between L4 and S1. STUDY DESIGN Prospective nonrandomized clinical trial with a mean 10-year follow-up. PATIENT SAMPLE Twenty-eight patients with symptomatic disc degeneration who underwent AcroFlex LDR at one or two levels. OUTCOME MEASURES Clinical: Visual Analog Score for back pain, Oswestry Disability Index (ODI), Low Back Outcome Score (LBOS), and Short Form-36 (SF-36). Survival: Kaplan-Meier analysis over 10 years with first revision surgery as the end point. Radiographic: Dynamic flexion/extension radiographs at 2 years. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and CT scans at 10 years. METHODS Twenty-eight subjects (14 male, mean age 41 years) with symptomatic disc degeneration unresponsive to nonsurgical treatment were enrolled into a prospective nonrandomized trial of the AcroFlex LDR. Visual analog score for back pain, ODI, LBOS, and SF-36 questionnaires were administered preoperatively at 6 months, 1, 2, and 10 years after the index procedure. All subjects were invited to undergo an MRI and for those with the device remaining in situ, a lumbar CT scan. Kaplan-Meier survival analysis was performed with first revision surgery as the end point. RESULTS At a mean of 9 years, 8 months (range, 8 years, 8 months-11 years, 3 months) after surgery, 17 of 28 patients did not require a revision surgery, representing a cumulative survival of 60.7%. In contrast, 11 of 28 patients (39.3%) underwent a total of 14 revision procedures; 9 of 11 patients underwent a conversion to anterior lumbar interbody fusion supplemented with pedicle screw fixation. Indications for a revision included device failure in seven and disabling pain in four patients. Mean time to revision was 3 years, 10 months (range, 23 months-8 years, 4 months). Mean ODI at 10 years for nonrevision cases was 27.5 (±17.6) compared with 41.8 (±26) for revision cases. Mean improvement over 10 years in the ODI for nonrevision cases was 17.9 (±16.9) compared with 12 (±16.1) for revision cases. Similar trends were observed in LBOS and SF-36 scores. Radiographic findings in the revision group included midsubstance tears in the rubber, osteolysis, and implant displacement. CT findings in 11 of 17 survivors included heterotopic bone formation (85%), osteolysis (50%), and subsidence (14%). Magnetic resonance imaging in 14 of 23 subjects at the final follow-up demonstrated an adjacent-level disc degeneration in 68% of those with the AcroFlex LDR in situ and in 40% of those who had been converted to fusion. Skip-level disc degeneration was present in 44% of those with AcroFlex device in situ and in 20% of those who had been converted to fusion. CONCLUSIONS The cumulative survival was 60.7% at 10 years when the first revision surgery was taken as the end point. The etiology of the implant failure prompting the revision included failure of osseointegration, midsubstance elastomeric tears, and osteolysis. Further use of this implant is not justified. The incidence of adjacent-level disc degeneration for the AcroFlex was comparable with that observed adjacent to the spinal fusion. Salvage procedures involving conversion to spinal fusion are technically demanding, but appear to improve outcomes modestly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam R Meir
- National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery, Queen Square, London, England WC1N 3BG
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