The overexpression of SOX2 affects the migration of human teratocarcinoma cell line NT2/D1

The Role of SOX2 and SOX9 Transcription Factors in the Reactivation-Related Functional Properties of NT2/D1-Derived Astrocytes

Astrocytes are the main homeostatic cells in the central nervous system, with the unique ability to transform from quiescent into a reactive state in response to pathological conditions by reacquiring some precursor properties. This process is known as reactive astrogliosis, a compensatory response that mediates tissue damage and recovery. Although it is well known that SOX transcription factors drive the expression of phenotype-specific genetic programs during neurodevelopment, their roles in mature astrocytes have not been studied extensively. We focused on the transcription factors SOX2 and SOX9, shown to be re-expressed in reactive astrocytes, in order to study the reactivation-related functional properties of astrocytes mediated by those proteins. We performed an initial screening of SOX2 and SOX9 expression after sensorimotor cortex ablation injury in rats and conducted gain-of-function studies in vitro using astrocytes derived from the human NT2/D1 cell line. Our results revealed the direct involvement of SOX2 in the reacquisition of proliferation in mature NT2/D1-derived astrocytes, while SOX9 overexpression increased migratory potential and glutamate uptake in these cells. Our results imply that modulation of SOX gene expression may change the functional properties of astrocytes, which holds promise for the discovery of potential therapeutic targets in the development of novel strategies for tissue regeneration and recovery.

The Role of SOX Transcription Factors in Ageing and Age-Related Diseases

The quest for eternal youth and immortality is as old as humankind. Ageing is an inevitable physiological process accompanied by many functional declines that are driving factors for age-related diseases. Stem cell exhaustion is one of the major hallmarks of ageing. The SOX transcription factors play well-known roles in self-renewal and differentiation of both embryonic and adult stem cells. As a consequence of ageing, the repertoire of adult stem cells present in various organs steadily declines, and their dysfunction/death could lead to reduced regenerative potential and development of age-related diseases. Thus, restoring the function of aged stem cells, inducing their regenerative potential, and slowing down the ageing process are critical for improving the health span and, consequently, the lifespan of humans. Reprograming factors, including SOX family members, emerge as crucial players in rejuvenation. This review focuses on the roles of SOX transcription factors in stem cell exhaustion and age-related diseases, including neurodegenerative diseases, visual deterioration, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, osteoporosis, and age-related cancers. A better understanding of the molecular mechanisms of ageing and the roles of SOX transcription factors in this process could open new avenues for developing novel strategies that will delay ageing and prevent age-related diseases.

Reactive and Senescent Astroglial Phenotypes as Hallmarks of Brain Pathologies

Astrocytes, as the most abundant glial cells in the central nervous system, are tightly integrated into neural networks and participate in numerous aspects of brain physiology and pathology. They are the main homeostatic cells in the central nervous system, and the loss of astrocyte physiological functions and/or gain of pro-inflammatory functions, due to their reactivation or cellular senescence, can have profound impacts on the surrounding microenvironment with pathological outcomes. Although the importance of astrocytes is generally recognized, and both senescence and reactive astrogliosis have been extensively reviewed independently, there are only a few comparative overviews of these complex processes. In this review, we summarize the latest data regarding astrocyte reactivation and senescence, and outline similarities and differences between these phenotypes from morphological, functional, and molecular points of view. A special focus has been given to neurodegenerative diseases, where these phenotypic alternations of astrocytes are significantly implicated. We also summarize current perspectives regarding new advances in model systems based on astrocytes as well as data pointing to these glial cells as potential therapeutic targets.

Ultrasensitive microfluidic electrochemical immunosensor based on electrodeposited nanoporous gold for SOX-2 determination

An ultrasensitive and portable microfluidic electrochemical immunosensor for SOX-2 cancer biomarker determination was developed. The selectivity and sensitivity of the sensor were improved by modifying the microfluidic channel. This was accomplished through a physical-chemical treatment to produce a hydrophilic surface, with an increased surface to volume/ratio, where the anti-SOX-2 antibodies can be covalently immobilized. A sputtered gold electrode was used as detector and its surface was activated by using a dynamic hydrogen bubble template method. As a result, a gold nanoporous structure (NPAu) with outstanding properties, like high specific surface area, large pore volume, uniform nanostructure, good conductivity, and excellent electrochemical activity was obtained. SOX-2 present in the sample was bound to the anti-SOX-2 immobilized in the microfluidic channel, and then was labeled with a second antibody marked with horseradish peroxidase (HRP-anti-SOX-2) like a sandwich immunoassay. Finally, an H₂O₂ + catechol solution was added, and the enzymatic product (quinone) was reduced on the NPAu electrode at +0.1 V (vs. Ag). The current obtained was directly proportional to the SOX-2 concentration in the sample. The detection limit achieved was 30 pg mL^-1, and the coefficient of variation was less than 4.75%. Therefore, the microfluidic electrochemical immunosensor is a suitable clinical device for in situ SOX-2 determination in real samples.

Insights into platinum-induced peripheral neuropathy-current perspective

Cancer is a global health problem that is often successfully addressed by therapy, with cancer survivors increasing in numbers and living longer world around. Although new cancer treatment options are continuously explored, platinum based chemotherapy agents remain in use due to their efficiency and availability. Unfortunately, all cancer therapies affect normal tissues as well as cancer, and more than 40 specific side effects of platinum based drugs documented so far decrease the quality of life of cancer survivors. Chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy is a frequent side effects of platinum-based chemotherapy agents. This cluster of complications is often so debilitating that patients occasionally have to discontinue the therapy. Sensory neurons of dorsal root ganglia are at the core of chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy symptoms. In these postmitotic cells, DNA damage caused by platinum chemotherapy interferes with normal functioning. Accumulation of DNA-platinum adducts correlates with neurotoxic severity and development of sensation of pain. While biochemistry of DNA-platinum adducts is the same in all cell types, molecular mechanisms affected by DNA-platinum adducts are different in cancer cells and non-dividing cells. This review aims to raise awareness about platinum associated chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy as a medical problem that has remained unexplained for decades. We emphasize the complexity of this condition both from clinical and mechanistical point of view and focus on recent findings about chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy in in vitro and in vivo model systems. Finally, we summarize current perspectives about clinical approaches for chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy treatment.

Increased Expression Of SOX2 Predicts A Poor Prognosis And Promotes Malignant Phenotypes In Upper Tract Urothelial Carcinoma

Background

The transcription factor SRY-related HMG-box 2 (SOX2) plays important regulatory roles in diverse biological processes (cell proliferation, migration, invasion and tumorigenicity). However, the relationship between SOX2 and upper tract urothelial carcinoma (UTUC) have not been intensively investigated. This study aims to analyze the expression of SOX2 in UTUC as well as the predictive value for prognosis and the effect on tumor aggressiveness of SOX2.

Methods

Formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded blocks containing samples from 341 patients with UTUC who underwent radical nephroureterectomy (RNU) at our institute were analyzed for SOX2 expression by immunohistochemistry (IHC). Associations between the SOX2 expression level and clinicopathological characteristics, disease-free survival (DFS) and cancer-specific survival (CSS) were analyzed. SOX2 expression in a normal urothelial cell line, urothelial carcinoma cell lines, 16 UTUC tissues and their pair-matched adjacent normal tissues was evaluated by RT-qPCR. Using RNA interference in vitro, the effects of SOX2 inhibition on cell proliferation, migration, invasion and tumorigenicity were determined.

Results

SOX2 expression was significantly upregulated in UTUC tissue samples compared with paired-adjacent nontumorous tissue samples. SOX2 expression was correlated with important clinicopathological features, including tumor stage, tumor grade, tumor architecture and the presence of glandular or sarcoma differentiation, and was an independent predictor of poor DFS and CSS. Further experiments indicated that SOX2 expression was higher in UTUC cell lines than in a normal urothelial cell line. Knocking down SOX2 expression could inhibit malignant phenotypes (cell proliferation, stemness, migration, invasion and tumorigenicity) in UTUC cells.

Conclusion

SOX2 is an independent prognostic marker of poor DFS and CSS in UTUC patients who have undergone RNU. Moreover, these data suggest that SOX2 may be a promising therapeutic target in UTUC.

Targeting SOX2 in anticancer therapy

INTRODUCTION

SOX2 is a transcription factor that is important in the development and maintenance of the stem cell state. Furthermore, SOX2 is associated with cancer progression because it promotes the migration, invasion, and proliferation of cancer cells. SOX2 is also expressed in cancer stem cells and appears to be involved in the resistance toward anticancer therapies. These features render SOX2 an attractive target for cancer therapy. Areas covered: In this review, we highlight the role of SOX2 in cancer and in the resistance toward anticancer therapies. We summarize recent studies dealing with SOX2 as a direct or indirect therapeutic target in cancer. Expert opinion: SOX2 is an attractive target in cancer therapy because of its role in cancer progression and therapy resistance. SOX2 is a transcription factor, hence direct targeting is difficult. Studies aimed at a functional depletion, for example by knock-down with siRNAs, are difficult to translate into clinical settings. Alternatively, the identification of SOX2 upstream or downstream regulators that are easier to target is of paramount importance.

A sensitive and disposable electrochemical immunosensor for detection of SOX2, a biomarker of cancer

A novel, sensitive, disposable indium tin oxide (ITO)-based electrochemical immunosensor was developed firstly for simple, rapid determination of Sex-determining region Y-box 2 (SOX2). SOX2 is a cancer biomarker and used for detecting small cell lung cancer, lung adenocarcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, skin cancer, prostate cancer, and breast cancer. In this study, a disposable ITO thin film based electrode was used as working electrode for biosensing the interaction between SOX2 antigen and anti-SOX2 antibody. In this study, carboxyethylsilanetriol (CTES) was also utilized for electrode modifying so as to obtain self-assembled monolayers. The formed self-assembled monolayers were activated with 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)carbodiimide (EDC)/N-hydroxysuccinimide (NHS) chemistry and they were used as a heterobifunctional crosslinker and activator, respectively. Anti-SOX2 antibody was used as a biorecognition molecule and was covalently immobilized onto the ITO thin film modified with CTES. Immobilization steps were characterized by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), cyclic voltammetry (CV), fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM). The optimum immobilization conditions such as antibody concentration, antibody and antigen incubation times were examined for the best sensitivity of the immunosensor. Under optimal conditions, this immunosensor had a wide linear detection range (25fg/mL-2pg/mL) with a detection limit as low as 7fg/mL SOX2. Furthermore, the developed SOX2 immunosensor had good storage stability (79.36% of initial activity after 9 weeks), repeatability (3.88% of RSD) and reproducibility (4.25% of RSD). Our developed immunosensor has an acceptable performance for detection of SOX2 antigen, exhibits low detection limit, and has selective and reproducible results in immunoreaction analysis.