Thymoquinone reverses learning and memory impairments and brain tissue oxidative damage in hypothyroid juvenile rats

Folic acid supplementation improved cognitive deficits associated with lithium administration during pregnancy in rat offspring

INTRODUCTION

The present study aimed to analyse both neurobehavioural and biochemical results of neonates born of mothers exposed to different doses of lithium along with the groups that received lithium at the highest dose with folic acid as a preventive treatment.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Male and female rats were mated in separate cages, and pregnant rats were divided into eight first group as (1) vehicle; (2) propylthiouracil (PTU)-induced hypothyroidism; (3-4) received two different doses of lithium carbonate (15 and 30 mg/kg); (5-7) the highest doses of lithium (30 mg/kg) plus three different doses of folic acid (5, 10 and 15 mg/kg); and (8) received just folic acid (15 mg/kg). All treatments were dissolved in drinking water and continued until delivery, followed by returning to a regular diet without treatment.

RESULTS

Lithium (30 mg/kg) disrupts both behavioural and biochemical markers, including TSH, T3 and T4 as measuring indicators to assess thyroid function, IL-10 and TNF-α as anti-inflammatory and inflammatory agents, respectively, malondialdehyde as an oxidative stress marker, alongside SOD, and catalase activity as antioxidant indicators. Besides, folic acid, almost at the highest dose (15 mg/kg), attenuated memory impairement and anxiety-like behaviour caused by lithium. Moreover, the groups treated with folic acid alone in comparison with vehicles demonstrated higher levels of antioxidant and anti-inflammatory indicators.

CONCLUSION

According to the results, prenatal exposure to a high dose of lithium (30 mg/kg) leads to foetal neurodevelopmental disorder and growth restriction through various mechanisms more likely attributed to hypothyroidism, which means it should be either prohibited or prescribed cautiously during pregnancy.

Omega-3 fatty acids prevent nicotine withdrawal-induced impairment of learning and memory via affecting oxidative status, inflammatory response, cholinergic activity, BDNF and amyloid-B in rat hippocampal tissues

In the present study, the main objective was to reveal whether treatment by Omega-3 fatty acids could prevent the adverse effects of adolescent nicotine withdrawal on spatial and avoidance memory in male rats. For this purpose, Morris water maze and passive avoidance tests were performed on male Wistar rats and the hippocampal levels of oxidative stress markers, inflammatory indices, brain-derived neurotrophic factor, nitrite, amyloid-B and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) were measured. Moreover, density of dark neurons were assessed in CA1 and CA3 regions. Results showed that adolescent nicotine exposure followed by a period of drug cessation exacerbates the behavioral indices of learning and memory through affecting a variety of biochemical markers within the hippocampal tissues. These changes lead to elevation of oxidative and inflammatory markers, reduction of neurotrophic capacity and increased AChE activity in hippocampal tissues. In addition, it was observed that co-administration of nicotine with Omega-3 fatty acids significantly prevents nicotine withdrawal-induced adverse effects through restoration of the mentioned biochemical disturbances. Therefore, we suggest administration of Omega-3 fatty acids as a safe, inexpensive and effective therapeutic strategy for prevention of memory dysfunctions associated with nicotine abstinence during adolescence.

Effects of thymoquinone and memantine alone and in combination on memory and hippocampal morphology in rats with streptozotocin-induced Alzheimer's disease

BACKGROUND

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease. Thymoquinone (TQ) has broad biological functions, including antiinflammatory, antioxidant, neuroprotective properties. Memantine (MEM) is indicated for the symptomatic treatment of moderate to severe AD. We aimed to evaluate the effect of TQ alone or in combination with MEM on memory and hippocampal morphology in an STZ-induced rat AD model.

METHODS

Thirty male rats were included in this study. The AD model was created by giving ICV STZ. The rats were divided into 5 groups (n = 6 each). Group 1 (control group): The rats received only ICV-STZ 3 mg/kg for 2 weeks. Group 2 (sham group): In addition to ICV STZ, 9% NaCl, 1 mL/day i.p. for 2 weeks of injection, was applied. Group 3 (TQ group): In addition to ICV STZ, rats received TQ 10 mg/kg i.p. for 2 weeks. Group 4 (MEM group): In addition to ICV STZ, rats were given MEM at a dose of 5 mg/kg for two weeks. Group 5 (TQ+MEM group): In addition to ICV STZ, this group was given TQ (10 mg/kg/day, i.p.) and MEM (5 mg/kg/day, i.p.) for 2 weeks. On the 15th day, passive avoidance learning (PAL) was applied to all groups. Then, rats were sacrificed, neurons in the hippocampal CA1, CA2, CA3 regions were evaluated.

RESULTS

Groups 3, 4, 5 had longer latency periods than groups 1 and 2. The neuron density in the CA1, CA2, CA3 regions had decreased in groups 1 and 2 compared to groups 3, 4, 5. There were significantly more neurons in groups 3, 4, 5 than in groups 1 and 2.

DISCUSSION

We found that TQ alone and in combination with MEM showed ameliorative effects on memory and hippocampal morphology. TQ may offer a promising treatment strategy for AD.

Nano-selenium relieved hepatic and renal oxidative damage in hypothyroid rats

Hypothyroidism can induce oxidative stress. Nano-selenium (Nano Sel) has antioxidant effects. The current research explored Nano Sel effects on hepatic and renal oxidative damage induced by hypothyroidism in rats. Animals were grouped into (1) Control; (2) Propylthiouracil (PTU) group which received water mixed with 0.05% of PTU; (3) PTU-Nano Sel 50; (4) PTU-Nano Sel 100; and (5) PTU-Nano Sel 150. Besides PTU, the PTU-Nano Sel groups were treated with 50, 100, or 150 μg/kg of Nano Sel intraperitoneally. Treatments were done for 6 weeks. The serum level of T4, aspartate transaminase (AST), alanine transaminase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), albumin, total protein, creatinine, and blood urea nitrogen (BUN) was evaluated. Malondialdehyde (MDA) and total thiol concentration and the activity of catalase (CAT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) in hepatic and renal tissues also were checked. Hypothyroidism induced by PTU significantly increased AST, ALT, ALP, creatinine, BUN, and MDA concentration and noticeably reduced albumin, total protein, total thiol level, and SOD and CAT activity. Administration of Nano Sel ameliorated the adverse effects of hypothyroidism on liver and kidney function. Nano Sel applied protective effects against hepatic and renal damage resulting from hypothyroidism via ameliorating the oxidative stress status. More cellular and molecular experiments need to be done to understand the exact mechanisms.

Hypericum perforatum L. Nanoemulsion Mitigates Cisplatin-Induced Chemobrain via Reducing Neurobehavioral Alterations, Oxidative Stress, Neuroinflammation, and Apoptosis in Adult Rats

Cisplatin (Cis) is a potent chemotherapeutic agent; however, it is linked with oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis, which may harmfully affect the brain. Hypericum perforatum L. (HP L.) is a strong medicinal plant, but its hydrophobic polyphenolic compounds limit its activity. Therefore, our study aimed to investigate the neuroprotective action of HP L. and its nanoemulsion (NE) against Cis-induced neurotoxicity. The prepared HP.NE was subjected to characterization. The droplet size distribution, surface charge, and morphology were evaluated. In addition, an in vitro dissolution study was conducted. Compared to Cis-intoxicated rats, HP L. and HP.NE-treated rats displayed improved motor activity and spatial working memory. They also showed an increase in their antioxidant defense system and a reduction in the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines in the brain. Moreover, they showed an increase in the expression levels of the PON-3 and GPX genes, which are associated with a reduction in the brain levels of COX-2 and TP-53. These findings were confirmed by reducing the immunohistochemical expression of nuclear factor kappa (NF-ƘB) and enhanced Ki-67 levels. In conclusion, HP L. is a promising herb and could be used as an adjuvant candidate to ameliorate chemotherapeutic-induced neurotoxicity. Moreover, HP.NE has superior activity in lessening Cis-induced oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis in brain tissue.

Anti-apoptotic and neurogenic properties in the hippocampus as possible mechanisms for learning and memory improving impacts of vitamin D in hypothyroid rats during the growth period

The current study was designed to investigate the protective effects of Vitamin D (VD) on hippocampal neurogenesis, apoptosis, and subsequent hippocampal-dependent learning and memory performance in hypothyroid juvenile rats. Twenty eight male Wistar rats were randomly divided into four groups as; control, Hypothyroid (Hypo), Hypo-VD100 and Hypo-VD500. Hypothyroidism was induced by giving 0.05 % propylthiouracil (PTU), and VD (100 or 500 IU/kg) treatment was performed daily by gavage. At the end of treatment, Morris water maze (MWM) was carried out and evaluated hippocampal neurogenesis, apoptosis, and dark neurons (DNs). Our results revealed that the escape latency and the traveled distance to find the platform in the Hypo group were significantly longer but the time spent and distance traveled in the target area in probe trial was lower than the control group. Hypothyroidism was accompanied by a marked decrease in hippocampal neurogenesis, and a significant increase in the number of apoptotic neurons and DNs compared to the control group. VD decreased escape latency and the traveled distance to find the platform but increased the time spent and distance traveled in the target area in probe trial than the Hypo group. VD also increased neurogenesis, reduced apoptosis and DNs production compared to the Hypo group. In conclusion, these results support a role for VD in the restoring hippocampal neurogenesis impairment, reducing neuronal apoptosis, and DNs in hypothyroid rats as well as raise the possibility that VD may contribute as a therapeutic approach to improve the learning and memory deficits associated with hypothyroidism.

Europinidin Inhibits Rotenone-Activated Parkinson's Disease in Rodents by Decreasing Lipid Peroxidation and Inflammatory Cytokines Pathways

Background: Europinidin is a derivative of delphinidin obtained from the plants Plumbago Europea and Ceratostigma plumbaginoides. This herb has wide medicinal applications in treating various diseases but there are very few studies available on this bioactive compound. Considering this background, the present study is designed for the evaluation of Europinidin against Parkinson’s disease. Aim: The investigation aims to assess the effect of Europinidin in the rotenone-activated Parkinson’s paradigm. Methods: To evaluate neuroprotective activity, rotenone (1.5 mg/kg s.c) and europinidin (10 mg/kg and 20 mg/kg) was administered in rats for 21 days. The behavioural parameters were performed before sacrificing the rats. On the 22nd day, all the rats were assessed for biochemical markers (SOD, GSH, MDA, Catalase), neurotransmitter levels (Dopamine, 5-HIAA, DOPAC, and HVA levels), and neuroinflammatory markers (IL-6, IL-1β and TNF-α). Results: It was found that rotenone produced significant (p < 0.001) oxidative damage, a cholinergic deficit, dopaminergic loss, and a rise in neuroinflammatory markers in rats. Conclusion: The study concludes that europinidin possesses anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. The results suggest the therapeutic role of europinidin against rotenone-activated behavioural, biochemical, and neuroinflammatory alterations in rats.

The improvement of Coreopsis tinctoria essential oil on learning and memory impairment of d-galactose-induced mice through Nrf2/NF-κB pathway

Essential oil of Coreopsis tinctoria (EOC) is a essential substance extracted from Coreopsis tinctoria with the excellent anti-oxidant effect. However, it is still unclear whether EOC can improve learning and memory impairment and its mechanism. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of EOC on learning and memory impairment induced by D-galactose (D-gal) in mice and reveal its mechanism. The composition of EOC was analyzed by GC-MS, and the results showed that the highest content was D-limonene. The follow-up experiments were conducted by comparing EOC with D-limonene. The aging model was established by subcutaneous injection of D-gal, and donepezil, D-limonene and EOC were given by intragastric administration. It was found that EOC and D-limonene significantly improved learning and memory impairment induced by D-gal through the Morris water maze and step-through tests. Pathological and biochemical analysis showed that the hippocampal morphologic of mice was damage and the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) induced by D-gal were decreased, while the content of malondialdehyde (MDA) was increased, while EOC and D-limonene could reverse the morphological changes and reduce oxidative damage. In addition, EOC and D-limonene significantly increased body weight and organ coefficients, including liver, spleen and kidney. Moreover, EOC and D-limonene improved the expression of nuclear factor E2 related factor 2 (Nrf2) pathway and inhibited nuclear transcription factors-κB (NF-κB) pathway. In summary, the results showed that EOC and D-limonene could improve learning and memory impairment induced by D-gal through Nrf2/ NF-κB pathway. It was clear that as a mixture, EOC was better than D-limonene on improving learning and memory impairment.

Thymoquinone improved redox homeostasis in the heart and aorta of hypothyroid rats

OBJECTIVES

Propylthiouracil (PTU) is a common drug that is used in medicine for treating hyperthyroidism. Furthermore, hypothyroidism can also be induced with PTU. Considering the antioxidant effects of thymoquinone (TMQ), this study was designed to find out whether TMQ could counteract the oxidative damage in the heart and aorta tissues induced by hypothyroidism in rats.

METHODS

Animals were arranged into four groups: (1) Control, (2) PTU, (3) PTU-TMQ 5, and (4) PTU-TMQ 10. Hypothyroidism was induced in rats by giving 0.05% PTU in drinking water. PTU and TMQ (5 and 10 mg/kg, ip) treatments were done for 42 days. Finally, the animals were sacrificed and the serum of the rats was collected for thyroxine level assessment. The heart and aorta tissues were also removed for biochemical oxidative stress markers measurement.

RESULTS

A lower serum thyroxine level was observed after PTU treatment compared to the control group. Hypothyroidism also was accompanied by a decrease of thiol content, and superoxide dismutase (SOD), and catalase (CAT) activities in the heart and aorta tissues while increased malondialdehyde (MDA). Furthermore, a significant reduction in oxidative damage was noted in the heart and aorta following the administration of TMQ (5 and 10 mg/kg) which was indicated by the reduction in MDA and improved activities of SOD, CAT, and thiol.

CONCLUSION

In this study, TMQ was found to improve oxidative damages in the heart and aorta tissues of hypothyroid rats.

Celastrol and thymoquinone alleviate aluminum chloride-induced neurotoxicity: Behavioral psychomotor performance, neurotransmitter level, oxidative-inflammatory markers, and BDNF expression in rat brain

Exposure to aluminum chloride (AlCl₃) induces progressive multiregional neurodegeneration in animal models by promoting oxidative stress and neuroinflammation. The current study was designed to assess the potential efficacy of the natural antioxidants celastrol and thymoquinone (TQ) for alleviating AlCl₃-induced psychomotor abnormalities and oxidative-inflammatory burden in male albino rats. Four treatment groups were compared: (i) a vehicle control group, (ii) a AlCL₃ group receiving daily intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of AlCl₃ (10 mg/kg) for 6 weeks, (iii) a AlCl₃ plus TQ (10 mg/kg, i.p.) cotreatment group, and (iv) a AlCl₃ plus celastrol (1 mg/kg, i.p.) cotreatment group. Open-field, rotarod, and forced swimming tests were conducted to assess locomotor activity, motor coordination, anxiety-like behavior, and depressive-like behavior. Acetylcholine (ACh), dopamine, and serotonin levels were measured in brain homogenates. Malondialdehyde (MDA), total antioxidant capacity (TAC), and catalase activity were measured as oxidative stress markers, while tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interlukin-6 (IL-6) expression levels were measured as inflammatory markers. Brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) mRNA was measured as an index for the endogenous neuroprotective response. Daily AlCl₃ injection reduced free ambulation, impaired motor coordination, promoted anxiety- and depression-like behaviors, reduced whole-brain ACh, dopamine, and serotonin concentrations, increased MDA accumulation, reduced TAC, elevated TNF-α and IL-6, and suppressed BDNF mRNA expression. All of these effects were significantly reversed by TQ or celastrol cotreatment. Thus, TQ and celastrol may be promising treatments for AlCl₃-induced neurotoxicity as well as neurodegenerative diseases involving oxidative stress and neuroinflammation.

Cardiovascular protective effects of PPARγ agonists in hypothyroid rats: protection against oxidative stress

Hypothyroidism disturbs redox homeostasis and takes part in cardiovascular system dysfunction. Considering antioxidant and cardio-protective effects of PPAR-γ agonists including pioglitazone (POG) and rosiglitazone (RSG), the present study was aimed to determine the effect of POG or RSG on oxidants and antioxidants indexes in the heart and aorta tissues of Propylthiouracil (PTU)-induced hypothyroid rats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The animals were divided into six groups: (1) Control; (2) propylthiouracil (PTU), (3) PTU-POG 10, (4) PTU-POG 20, (5) PTU-RSG 2, and (6) PTU-RSG 4. Hypothyroidism was induced in rats by giving 0.05% propylthiouracil (PTU) in drinking water for 42 days. The rats of PTU-POG 10 and PTU-POG 20 groups received 10 and 20 mg/kg POG, respectively, besides PTU, and the rats of PTU-RSG 2 and PTU-RSG 4 groups received 2 and 4 mg/kg RSG, respectively, besides PTU. The animals were sacrificed, and the serum of the rats was collected to measure thyroxine level. The heart and aorta tissues were also removed for the measurement of biochemical oxidative stress markers.

RESULTS

Hypothyroidism was induced by PTU administration, which was indicated by lower serum thyroxine levels. Hypothyroidism also was accompanied by a decrease of catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities, and thiol concentration in the heart and aorta tissues while increased level of malondialdehyde (MDA). Interestingly, administration of POG or RSG dramatically reduced oxidative damage in the heart and aorta, as reflected by a decrease in MDA and increased activities of SOD, CAT, and thiol content.

CONCLUSION

The results of this study showed that administration of POG or RSG decreased oxidative damage in the heart and aorta tissues induced by hypothyroidism in rats.

Effects of thymoquinone on scopolamine-induced spatial and echoic memory changes through regulation of lipid peroxidation and cholinergic impairment

Thymoquinone (TMQ), one of the main components active of Nigella sativa, shows very useful biomedical properties. Evidence suggests that cholinergic dysfunction and oxidative stress play role in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease (AD). In the present study, we investigated the anti-amnestic effect of TMQ in scopolamine-induced animal model of AD. Wistar rats were randomly divided into four groups; Sham(SH), TMQ-treated(TMQ), scopolamine-treated(SCO) and scopolamine+TMQ-treated(SCO_TMQ) groups. TMQ (20 mg/kg) prepared in corn oil was administered intraperitoneally (i.p.) 1-h before experiments. Scopolamine (1 mg/kg) dissolved in 0.9% physiological saline was administered intraperitoneally (i.p.). We recorded mismatch negativity (MMN) response as an electrophysiological correlate of echoic memory. Object location memory (OLM) and Y-maze alternation tests were carried out to assess spatial memory. Then, the brain homogenates content of thiobarbituric-acid-reactive-substances (TBARS), 4-Hydroxy-2-nonenal (4-HNE) and acetylcholine (ACh)/acetylcholine (AChE) activity were biochemically determined. In the scopolamine-treated rats, TMQ was found to significantly improve the discrimination and spontaneous alteration levels in the OLM and Y-maze tests, respectively. Furthermore, TMQ significantly mitigated the scopolamine-induced attenuation of MMN and related theta responses. Moreover, scopolamine treatment increased TBARS/4-HNE level and decreased ACh level in the brain, and TMQ was able to significantly prevent these effects. AChE activity was increased in the SCO group; this effect was significantly attenuated by TMQ. TMQ diminished the lipid peroxidation and cholinergic dysfunction in the scopolamine-induced AD rat model which all reflected in improving the MMN/theta response and spatial memory. This may implement TMQ as an adjuvant therapeutic strategy in ameliorating AD.

Cardiovascular protective effect of nano selenium in hypothyroid rats: protection against oxidative stress and cardiac fibrosis

BACKGROUND

Nano selenium (Nano Sel) has many therapeutic properties including antioxidant, anticancer, and anti-inflammatory actions.

OBJECTIVE

Impacts of Nano Sel administration against cardiac fibrosis and heart and aorta tissue oxidative damage observed in hypothyroid rats were explored.

METHODS

The animals were randomly grouped and treated as: 1) Control; 2) Propylthiouracil (PTU) in which PTU was added to the drinking water (0.05%) to induce hypothyroidism; 3-5) PTU-Nano Sel 50, PTU-Nano Sel 100, and PTU-Nano Sel 150 groups, which received daily PTU plus 50,100 or 150 µg/kg of Nano Sel for 6 weeks intraperitoneally. The heart and aorta tissues were removed under deep anesthesia and then biochemical parameters including malondialdehyde (MDA), total thiol groups, catalase (CAT), and superoxide dismutase (SOD), as well as cardiac fibrosis were assessed.

RESULTS

Hypothyroidism induced by PTU was remarkably associated with myocardial hypertrophy and perivascular fibrosis in Masson's trichrome staining. Moreover, hypothyroidism increased MDA level, while it subtracted total thiol group content and activity of SOD and CAT. Treatment with Nano Sel recovered hypothyroidism-induced cardiac fibrosis in the histological assessment. Nano Sel also promoted CAT and SOD activity and thiol content, whereas alleviated MDA levels in the heart and aorta tissues.

CONCLUSION

Results propose that administration of Nano Sel exerts a protective role in the cardio vascular system via preventing cardiac fibrosis and inhibiting oxidative stress.

Folic acid attenuated learning and memory impairment via inhibition of oxidative damage and acetylcholinesterase activity in hypothyroid rats

Hypothyroidism has been reported to be associated with cognitive decline. Considering the role of folic acid (FA) in cognitive performance, the present study was designed to investigate the effects of FA on hypothyroidism-induced cognitive impairment, oxidative damage, and alterations in acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity in rat model of propylthiouracil (PTU)-induced hypothyroidism. In this study, PTU (0.05% in drinking water) and FA (5, 10, and 15 mg/kg, oral gavage) were administered for the rats during 7 weeks. Then, behavioral performance was tested using Morris water maze (MWM) and passive avoidance (PA) tasks. Finally, oxidative stress indicators and AChE activity were assayed in the brain tissues. The impairing effect of hypothyroidism on cognitive performance was markedly alleviated by FA especially at higher doses. In the MWM test, FA reduced escape latency and travelled distance, compared to the non-treated hypothyroid group. In the PA test, latency to enter dark chamber was significantly enhanced by FA compared to the non-treated hypothyroid group (p < 0.05-p < 0.001). Besides, FA attenuated AChE activity and malondialdehyde level but it increased activity of superoxide dismutase enzyme and total thiol content (p < 0.05-p < 0.001). In conclusion, our findings revealed that FA could improve learning and memory ability in hypothyroid rats. The observed protective effects may have been mediated through regulation of oxidative stress and AChE activity.

Chrysin restores memory deficit in hypothyroidism mice: Behavioral, neurochemical and computational approaches involving the neurotrophinergic system

Hypothyroidism is a condition that affects multiple systems, including the central nervous system, causing, for example, cognitive deficits closely related to Alzheimer's disease. The flavonoid chrysin is a natural compound associated with neuronal improvement in several experimental models. Here, we evaluated the effect of chrysin on cognitive impairment in hypothyroid female mice by exploring neuroplasticity. Hypothyroidism was induced by continuous exposure to 0.1% methimazole (MTZ) in drinking water for 31 days. On the 32nd day, the animals showed low plasma levels of thyroid hormones (hypothyroid mice) than the control group (euthyroid mice). Subsequently, mice were intragastrically administered with vehicle or chrysin (20 mg/kg) once a day for 28 consecutive days. At the end of the treatments, behavioral tests were performed: open-field test (OFT) and morris water maze (MWM). Then, the levels of neurotrophins (BDNF and NGF) in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex were measured and tested the affinity of chrysin with neurotrophinergic receptors through molecular docking. Hypothyroid mice showed memory deficit in the MWM and reduced neurotrophins levels in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex, meanwhile, the chrysin treatment was able to reversed the deficit of spatial memory function and increased the levels of BDNF in hipocamppus and NGF in both structures. Additionally, molecular docking analysis showed that chrysin potentially binds to the active site of the TrkA, TrkB, and p75NTR receptors. Together, these findings suggest that chrysin reversed behavioral and neurochemical alterations associated with memory deficit induced by hypothyroidism, possibly by modulating synaptic plasticity in the neurotrophinergic system.

Brain‑derived neurotrophic factor and nitric oxide contribute to protective effects of rosiglitazone on learning and memory in hypothyroid rats

The effects of the well‑known peroxisome proliferator‑activated receptor gamma (PPAR-γ) agonist rosiglitazone (Rosi) on brain‑derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), nitric oxide (NO), and learning and memory were investigated in hypothyroid rats. Hypothyroidism was induced in immature Wistar rats by administration of propylthiouracil in drinking water. Rats were divided into four groups: control, hypothyroid, and hypothyroid treated with Rosi at doses of 2 mg/kg or 4 mg/kg. Memory was then assessed by the Morris water maze (MWM) and passive avoidance (PA) tests. Following anesthetization, brain samples were collected for biochemical measurements. Hypothyroidism increased the escape latency and traveled path in the learning trials of the MWM and decreased the time spent and the distance traveled in the target quadrant on the probe day. Hypothyroidism also impaired the avoidance behavior of rats in the PA test. Rosi improved the performance of rats in both MWM and PA tasks. Hypothyroidism also decreased hippocampal BDNF levels, increased NO metabolites, and induced oxidative damage in the brain. Treatment of hypothyroid rats with both doses of Rosi increased BDNF levels and decreased NO metabolites and malondialdehyde concentrations. In addition, thiol content and superoxide dismutase and catalase activities were increased in the brain regions of hypothyroid rats receiving Rosi. The administration of 4 mg/kg Rosi also significantly increased serum thyroxin levels. The results of the present study showed that BDNF and NO play a role in the protective effects of Rosi against learning and memory impairment in hypothyroid rats.

Thymoquinone has a neuroprotective effect against inflammation, oxidative stress, and endoplasmic reticulum stress in the brain cortex, medulla, and hippocampus due to doxorubicin

Although doxorubicin (DOX) is used in many cancer treatments, it causes neurotoxicity. In this study, the effect of thymoquinone (THQ), a powerful antioxidant, on DOX-induced neurotoxicity was evaluated. In total, 40 rats were used and 5 groups were formed. Group I: control group (n = 8); Group II: olive oil group (n = 8); Group III: the THQ group (n = 8); THQ 10 mg/kg per day was given intraperitoneally (i.p.) throughout the experiment; group IV: DOX group (n = 8); On Day 7 of the experiment, a single dose of 15 mg/kg intraperitoneally DOX injected; group V: DOX + THQ group (n = 8); Throughout the experiment, 10 mg/kg THQ per day and intraperitoneally 15 mg/kg DOX on Day 7 were injected. Immunohistochemically, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-17 (IL-17), hypoxia-inducible factor 1α (HIF1-α), glucose regulatory protein 78 (GRP78), and the gene inducible by growth arrest and DNA damage 153 (GADD153) proteins were evaluated in the brain cortex, medulla, and hippocampus regions. Total oxidant status (TOS) levels and total antioxidant status (TAS) in the brain tissue were measured. TNF-α, IL-17, HIF1-α, GRP78, and GADD153 immunoreactivities significantly increased in the DOX group in the study. THQ significantly reduced these values. THQ increased the TAS level significantly and decreased the TOS level significantly compared to the DOX group. THQ may play a role as a neuroprotective agent in DOX-induced neurotoxicity in the cortex, medulla, and hippocampus regions of the brain.

Effects of Nigella sativa oil and thymoquinone on radiation-induced oxidative stress in kidney tissue of rats

Ionizing radiation leads to release of free radicals into the systemic circulation from irradiated tissues. These free radicals cause oxidative stress in distant organs. Oxidative status may be reversed by naturally occurring antioxidant agents. The aim of this study was to investigate protective and antioxidant effects of Nigella sativa oil (NSO) and thymoquinone (TQ) in kidney tissue of rats exposed to cranial irradiation. Forty-eight Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into six groups: IR group received irradiation (IR) to total cranium plus saline; IR plus NSO group received IR and NSO; IR plus TQ group received IR and TQ; sham group did not receive NSO, TQ or IR; control group of TQ received dimethyl sulfoxide; control group of NSO received saline. Total oxidant status (TOS), oxidative stress index (OSI) and lipid hydroperoxide (LOOH) levels were studied as oxidative parameters, and total antioxidant status (TAS), total sulfhydryl levels, paraoxonase (PON), ceruloplasmin (Cp) and arylesterase activities were determined as antioxidative parameters in the kidney tissue of rats. Kidney TOS, OSI and LOOH levels were significantly lower in IR plus TQ, IR plus NSO and sham groups compared to IR group (p < 0.001). TAS, PON and Cp activities in IR group were significantly lower compared to the control group (p < 0.001). PON and Cp activities were significantly higher in IR plus NSO and IR plus TQ groups compared to IR group (p < 0.001). In conclusion, free radicals generated by cranial ionizing radiation exposure cause oxidative stress in kidney. NSO and TQ exhibit protective and antioxidant effects against oxidative damage in rats.

Beneficial effects of vitamin D on anxiety and depression-like behaviors induced by unpredictable chronic mild stress by suppression of brain oxidative stress and neuroinflammation in rats

The objective of this study was to investigate the protective effects of vitamin D (Vit D) on anxiety and depression-like behaviors induced by unpredictable chronic mild stress and brain tissue oxidative damage criteria and neuroinflammation in rats. The rats were treated as follows: (1) control, (2) UCMS, (3-5) Vit D 100, 1000, and 10,000 iu + UCMS. Rats were subjected to UCMS for a total of 4 weeks. During week 4, they received seven training trials. The brains were then collected to examine inflammation and oxidative stress criteria. Pretreatment with Vit D enhanced performances of the rats in the elevated plus maze (EPM) and open field (OF) and forced swimming test (FST). UCMS also increased MDA and interleukin-6 (IL-6) levels while decreased CAT, SOD, and thiol. Vit D reversed the effects of UCMS. The results of the current research revealed that Vit D improved UCMS-induced anxiety and depression via decreasing brain oxidative stress and inhibiting neuroinflammation.

Beneficial effects of angiotensin converting enzyme inhibition on scopolamine-induced learning and memory impairment in rats, the roles of brain-derived neurotrophic factor, nitric oxide and neuroinflammation

The effect of the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), cytokines, and renin angiotensin system (RAS) on memory function have been demonstrated. In this study, the effects of RAS inhibitor captopril (Capto) on hippocampal BDNF, interleukin -6 (IL-6), oxidative stress indicators, and nitric oxide (NO) in scopolamine (Sco)-induced memory impairment in rats were examined. The groups were (1) control, (2) Sco in which Sco was applied 30 min prior to the behavioral tests, and (3-5) Sco-Capto 10, 50, and 100 groups, where Capto (10, 50, or 100 mg/kg), were applied 2 weeks prior to the experiment, as well as 30 min prior to each Sco injection. The Morris Water Maze (MWM) test was conducted, and BDNF, IL-6, NO metabolites, malondialdehyde (MDA), thiol, superoxide dismutase (SOD), and catalase (CAT) were measured. Sco increased the delay and distance to the platform in the MWM test (P < .01 to P < .001), while shortening the time and distance in the target area (P < .01 to P < .001). Additionally, Sco increased IL-6, NO metabolites, and MDA, while decreasing BDNF, thiol, SOD, and CAT (P < .01 to P < .001). Although the Capto reduced the latency and distance traveled to the platform (P < .05 to P < .001), it elevated the time and distance traveled in the target area (P < .05 to P < .01). Furthermore, Capto improved BDNF, thiol, SOD, and CAT levels, and decreased IL-6, NO metabolites, and MDA (P < .05 to P < .001). RAS has a role in learning and memory impairment due to cholinergic system dysfunction. The possible mechanism(s) are including its effects on BDNF, neuro-inflammation and oxidative stress.

Thymoquinone: A Tie-Breaker in SARS-CoV2-Infected Cancer Patients?

Since the beginning of the SARS-CoV-2(severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus-2) pandemic, arace to develop a vaccine has been initiated, considering the massive and rather significant economic and healthcare hits that this virus has caused. The pathophysiology occurring following COVID-19(coronavirus disease-2019) infection has givenhints regarding the supportive and symptomatic treatments to establish for patients, as no specific anti-SARS-CoV-2 is available yet. Patient symptoms vary greatly and range from mild symptoms to severe fatal complications. Supportive treatments include antipyretics, antiviral therapies, different combinations of broad-spectrum antibiotics, hydroxychloroquine and plasma transfusion. Unfortunately, cancer patients are at higher risk of viral infection and more likely to develop serious complications due to their immunocompromised state, the fact that they are already administering multiple medications, as well as combined comorbidity compared to the general population. It may seem impossible to find a drug that possesses both potent antiviral and anticancer effects specifically against COVID-19 infection and its complications and the existing malignancy, respectively. Thymoquinone (TQ) is the most pharmacologically active ingredient in Nigella sativa seeds (black seeds); it is reported to have anticancer, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects in various settings. In this review, we will discuss the multiple effects of TQ specifically against COVID-19, its beneficial effects against COVID-19 pathophysiology and multiple-organ complications, its use as an adjuvant for supportive COVID-19 therapy and cancer therapy, and finally, its anticancer effects.

Thymoquinone Preserves Pancreatic Islets Structure Through Upregulation of Pancreatic β-Catenin in Hypothyroid Rats

BACKGROUND

Altered status of thyroid hormones, which have a key role in regulating metabolism, was reported to affect glucose homeostasis and insulin secretion.

OBJECTIVE

This study was designed to assess the impact of propylthiouracil (PTU)-induced hypothyroidism on the pancreatic islet cells and the efficacy of thymoquinone (TQ) in alleviating this impact and explore the mechanism behind it alleviating oxidative stress and affecting β-catenin expression.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

PTU (6 mg/kg/body weight) was used to induce hypothyroidism in Wistar rats. Four groups of rats (n=6 each) were utilized in this study. Untreated hypothyroid and TQ-treated hypothyroid groups (50 mg/kg/body weight for 4 weeks) were included. Thyroid functions, antioxidant profile and pancreatic β-catenin and IL-10 mRNA were measured. Histopathological and immunohistochemical assessment of the pancreas was performed.

RESULTS

PTU administration induced a hypothyroid status that was associated with a marked disturbed oxidant/antioxidant status and a significant hyperglycemia (p<0:001), hypoinsulinemia (p=0.01) and decreased HOMA-β-cell (p<0.001). Islet cells of hypothyroid pancreas showed many degenerative changes with increased apoptosis, reduced insulin β-catenin immunoexpression. Administration of TQ alleviated these effects on the thyroid function, antioxidants, structure of pancreatic islet cells. Up-regulation of β-catenin, IL-10 and CAT gene expression in pancreatic islets after treatment with TQ supported its antioxidant and preserving β-cell function and viability mechanistic action.

CONCLUSION

TQ alleviated PTU-induced hypothyroidism changes in insulin homeostasis and pancreatic β cells mostly through its antioxidant effect as well as up-regulation of pancreatic β-catenin expression.

Effects of Schisandra chinensis Extract on the Learning and Memory Ability of Mice With Learning and Memory Disorders

The effect of Schisandra chinensis extract (SCE) on the learning and memory ability of mice with learning and memory disorders was investigated. After mice were given SCE prophylactically, different methods were used to establish mouse learning and memory disorders, and the radial maze test was used for the observation of SCE on the learning and memory ability of mice with learning and memory disorders. A mouse aging model was established by subcutaneously injecting d-galactose. The antiaging, antifatigue, and antioxidant effects of SCE were evaluated by weight change, the loaded swimming test, and changes in total antioxidant capacity and superoxide dismutase (SOD) levels in the serum and brain of mice. The result showed that SCE could significantly improve the learning and memory behavior of mice with learning and memory disorders induced by scopolamine, chloramphenicol, and 40% ethanol, respectively, maintain normal weight gain, prolong the loaded swimming time, improve the antioxidant capacity, and increase the activity of SOD in the serum and brain of aging mice. SCE can significantly improve the learning and memory ability of mice with learning and memory disorders, which may be related to its antioxidant effect.

Neuronal Nitric Oxide Inhibitor 7-Nitroindazole Improved Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor and Attenuated Brain Tissues Oxidative Damage and Learning and Memory Impairments of Hypothyroid Juvenile Rats

Hypothyroidism-associated learning and memory impairment is reported to be connected to oxidative stress and reduced levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). The effects of neuronal nitric oxide inhibitor 7-nitroindazole (7NI) on brain tissues oxidative damage, nitric oxide (NO), BDNF and memory impairments in hypothyroid juvenile rats were investigated. Male Wistar juvenile rats (20 days old) were divided into five groups, including Martinez et al. (J Neurochem 78 (5):1054-1063, 2001). Control in which vehicle was injected instead of 7NI, (Jackson in Thyroid 8 (10):951-956, 1998) Propylthiouracil (PTU) where 0.05% PTU was added in drinking water and vehicle was injected instead of 7NI, (Gong et al. in BMC Neurosci 11 (1):50, 2010; Alva-Sánchez et al. in Brain Res 1271:27-35, 2009; Anaeigoudari et al. in Pharmacol Rep 68 (2): 243-249, 2016) PTU-7NI 5, PTU-7NI 10 and PTU-7NI 20 in which 5, 10, or 20 mg/kg7NI was injected intraperitoneally (i.p.). Following 6 weeks, Morris water maze (MMW) and passive avoidance learning (PAL) tests were used to evaluate the memory. Finally, the hippocampus and the cortex of the rats were removed after anesthesia by urethane to be used for future analysis. The escape latency and traveled path in MWM test was increased in PTU group (P < 0.001). PTU also reduced the latency to enter the dark box of PAL and the time spent and the distance in the target quadrant in MWM test (P < 0.001 and P < 0.01). Treatment with 7NI attenuated all adverse effects of PTU (P < 0.05 to P < 0.001). PTU lowered BDNF and thiol content and superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) activities in the brain but increased malondialdehyde (MDA) and nitric oxide (NO) metabolites. In addition, 7NI improved thiol, SOD, CAT, thiol, and BDNF but attenuated MDA and NO metabolites. The results of the current study showed that 7NI improvement in the learning and memory of the hypothyroid juvenile rats, which was accompanied with improving of BDNF and attenuation of NO and brain tissues oxidative damage.

The brain consequences of systemic inflammation were not fully alleviated by ibuprofen treatment in mice

BACKGROUND

Extensive data point to the immune system as an important factor underlying the pathogenesis of brain diseases. Epidemiological studies have shown that long-term treatment with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) significantly reduces the onset and progression of Alzheimer's disease. The present study aimed to investigate whether ibuprofen (IBU) is able to prevent the long-lasting alterations of brain function induced by systemic inflammation.

METHODS

Mice received intraperitoneal injections of lipopolysaccharide (LPS; 250 µg/kg/day) for seven consecutive days. Ibuprofen administration (40 mg/kg/day) was started three days before the LPS injections and continued until the last day of LPS injection. Within the next 2 weeks, mice performances on the behavioral tests were evaluated, and then brain tissue samples for biochemical analyses were collected.

RESULTS

The findings showed that ibuprofen significantly improved mice's performance in the passive avoidance test and reduced anxiety- and depressive-like behaviors. However, ibuprofen could not significantly improve spatial memory in the Morris water maze test and recognition ability in the novel object recognition test. TNF-α and IL-1β cytokines levels and malondialdehyde (MDA) concentration in the hippocampal tissues of LPS-treated mice were significantly lowered by ibuprofen treatment, whereas no significant effects on IL-10 production and hippocampal BDNF levels were observed. In addition, ibuprofen did not significantly reduce amyloid-β_1-40 levels in the hippocampus of LPS-treated animals.

CONCLUSION

Overall, the findings of the present study suggest that some, but not all, of the adverse effects of systemic inflammation are alleviated by ibuprofen treatment.

The effects of the combination of Cyperus rotundus, Crocus sativus, Piper nigrum, and Boswellia serrata on learning and memory deficit and oxidative damage in brain tissue of hypothyroid rats

In the present study, the impact of a combination of four memory-enhancer herbs on cognitive impairment and brain tissue oxidative damage due to hypothyroidism was evaluated. Propylthiouracil (PTU; 0.05%) was administrated in drinking water. Rats were treated with a combination of four herbal products (Cyperus rotundus, Crocus sativus, Piper nigrum, and Boswellia serrata) mixed with honey at two doses (640 and 1,280 mg/kg) or donepezil (0.5 mg/kg), for 6 weeks. Memory performance on the Morris water maze (MWM) and avoidance behavior in passive avoidance was impaired by hypothyroidism, and brain tissue oxidative damage occurred. Herbal combination and donepezil significantly improved memory impairment, reduced malondialdehyde concentration, and nitric oxide metabolites while increased the thiol contents and catalase and superoxide dismutase enzymes activity in the brain. Our findings suggest that the mixture of herbal products improves learning and memory deficits caused by hypothyroidism, probably by reducing the brain tissue oxidative damage. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Learning and memory impairment is a common feature of thyroid hormones deficiency. Several studies are showing that hypothyroidism in juvenile and mature rats induces significant cognitive impairment. Likewise, in humans, a close relationship between thyroid hormone deficiency and cognitive impairment has been reported. We used a mixture of herbal products, including Cyperus rotundus, Crocus sativus, Piper nigrum, and Boswellia serrata, to treat hypothyroidism-induced memory impairment. All these herbs are widely used as a food additive across the world. In Iranian traditional medicine, this herbal combination traditionally used to treat cognitive impairments. Numerous studies have indicated that these herbs show neuroprotective and memory-enhancing properties. Our finding indicated that a traditionally used herbal combination could potentially use as a treatment of cognitive impairment induced by thyroid hormone deficiency.

Thymoquinone Upregulates Catalase Gene Expression and Preserves the Structure of the Renal Cortex of Propylthiouracil-Induced Hypothyroid Rats

Background

The association between hypothyroidism and renal diseases has been described in many studies. Nigella Sativa was among the recently reported natural product that has the potential to prevent renal tissue damage and fibrosis. The aim of this study was to evaluate the possible protective effect of thymoquinone on the structure of the renal cortex of hypothyroid rats and explore the mechanism behind it.

Methods

An experimental model of hypothyroidism was induced in adult male Wistar rats by administration of propylthiouracil (6 mg/kg/body weight). One hypothyroid group was treated with thymoquinone at the dose of 50 mg/kg/body weight and compared to the untreated group. Thyroid function and oxidant/antioxidant status were assessed in the serum. Catalase gene expression was assessed using the real-time polymerase chain reaction. The kidney was assessed both histologically and immunohistochemically.

Results

Administration of propylthiouracil resulted in a significant decrease in the serum levels of nitric oxide, reduced glutathione, and superoxide dismutase activity while the level of malondialdehyde significantly (p < 0.001) increased. Administration of thymoquinone alleviated this effect on the thyroid hormones and significantly increased the serum levels of antioxidants. Thymoquinone significantly (p < 0.001) upregulated catalase transcription by about 24-fold and could block the hypothyroidism-induced glomerular and tubular injury.

Conclusion

Thymoquinone may have a potential protective effect against hypothyroidism-induced renal injury acting through the attenuation of the oxidative stress and upregulation of renal catalase gene expression.

Effects of Medicinal Plants and Flavonoids on Parkinson's Disease: A Review on Basic and Clinical Evidences

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder which is characterized by typical symptoms including gradual progressive muscle rigidity, tremor and loss of motor skills. Although there is no definitive cure for PD, the extract of some medicinal plants and their ingredients have been suggested to relieve its symptoms and to prevent disability in patients. This review is focused on therapeutic effects of some medicinal plants and their ingredients on PD. The findings presented in this review were collected from experimental and clinical studies in databases including PubMed, Web of Science and Google Scholar until the end of May 2019. The keywords "neurotoxicity " or "Parkinson’s disease" or "neuroprotective" and "Medicinal plants" and "Flavonoids" were searched. Based on the results of animal and clinical studies, the extract of medicinal plants and their components which are discussed in this review have neuro-protective effects against PD. These protective properties mainly are mediated through inhibition of dopamine metabolizing enzymes, reduction oxidant markers, increase of antioxidant agents and suppression of neuro-inflammation.

Modulation of glutamate levels and Na+,K+-ATPase activity contributes to the chrysin memory recovery in hypothyroidism mice

Abnormalities in the thyroid hormones, like in hypothyroidism, are closely related to dementia and Alzheimer's disease demonstrating the main symptom of these disorders: memory deficit. In this study we evaluated the effect of chrysin on deficit spatial and aversive memories and the contribution of glutamatergic, cholinergic pathways and Na⁺, K⁺-ATPase activity on hippocampus and prefrontal cortex in hypothyroid adult female mice C57BL/6. Hypothyroidism was induced by the continuous exposure to 0.1% methimazole (MTZ) in drinking water for 31 days. The exposure to MTZ was associated to low plasma levels of thyroid hormones (TH) compared to the control group on the 32nd. Subsequently, euthyroid and MTZ-induced hypothyroid mice received (intragastrically) either vehicle or chrysin (20 mg/kg) once a day for 28 consecutive days. After treatments mice performed the following behavioral assessments: open-field test (OFT), morris water maze (MWM) and passive avoidance test. Additionally, plasma TH levels were measured again, as well as glutamate levels, Na⁺,K⁺-ATPase and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activities were analyzed in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex of mice. Mice with hypothyroidism showed a deficit of spatial and aversive memory and chrysin treatment reversed these deficits. It also reduced the levels of glutamate and decreased Na⁺,K⁺-ATPase activity in both cerebral structures in the hypothyroid mice compared with the euthyroid ones, with the exception of glutamate in the hippocampus, which was a partial reversal. AChE activity was not altered by treatments. Together, our results demonstrate that chrysin normalized hippocampal glutamate levels and Na⁺,K⁺-ATPase activity, which could be involved in the reversal of memory deficit.

Regulation of nitric oxide production in hypothyroidism

Hypothyroidism is a common endocrine disorder that predominantly occurs in females. It is associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular diseases (CVD), but the molecular mechanism is not known. Disturbance in lipid metabolism, the regulation of oxidative stress, and inflammation characterize the progression of subclinical hypothyroidism. The initiation and progression of endothelial dysfunction also exhibit these changes, which is the initial step in developing CVD. Animal and human studies highlight the critical role of nitric oxide (NO) as a reliable biomarker for cardiovascular risk in subclinical and clinical hypothyroidism. In this review, we summarize the recent literature findings associated with NO production by the thyroid hormones in both physiological and pathophysiological conditions. We also discuss the levothyroxine treatment effect on serum NO levels in hypothyroid patients.

Neuroprotective and long term potentiation improving effects of vitamin E in juvenile hypothyroid rats

Abstract. Protective effects of vitamin E (Vit E) on long term potentiation (LTP) impairment, neuronal apoptosis and increase of nitric oxide (NO) metabolites in the hippocampus of juvenile rats were examined. The rats were grouped (n=13) as: (1) control; (2) hypothyroid (Hypo) and (3) Hypo-Vit E. Propylthiouracil (PTU) was given in drinking water (0.05%) during 6 weeks. Vit E (20 mg/ kg) was daily injected (IP). To evaluate synaptic plasticity, LTP from the CA1 area of the hippocampus followed by high frequency stimulation to the ipsilateral Schafer collateral pathway was carried out. The cortical and hippocampal tissues were then removed to measure NO metabolites. The brains of 5 animals in each group were removed for apoptosis study. The hypothyroidism status decreased the slope, 10–90% slope and amplitude of field excitatory post synaptic potential (fEPSP) compared to the control group (P<0.01–P<0.001). Injection of Vit E increased the slope, 10–90% slope and amplitude of the fEPSP in the Hypo-Vit E group in comparison to the Hypo group (P<0.05–P<0.01). TUNEL positive neurons and NO metabolites were higher in the hippocampus of the Hypo rats, as compared to those in the hippocampus of the control ones (P<0.001). Treatment of the Hypo rats by Vit E decreased apoptotic neurons (P<0.01–P<0.001) and NO metabolites (P<0.001) in the hippocampus compared to the Hypo rats. The results of the present study showed that Vit E prevented the LTP impairment and neuronal apoptosis in the hippocampus of juvenile hypothyroid rats.

Neuroprotective effects of exercise in rodent models of memory deficit and Alzheimer's

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a fastest growing neurodegenerative condition with no standard treatment. There are growing evidence about the beneficial effects of exercise in brain health promotion and slowing the cognitive decline. The aim of this study was to review the protective mechanisms of treadmill exercise in different models of rodent memory deficits. Online literature database, including PubMed-Medline, Scopus, Google scholar were searched from 2003 till 2017. Original article with English language were chosen according to following key words in the title: (exercise OR physical activity) AND (memory OR learning). Ninety studies were finally included in the qualitative synthesis. The results of these studies showed the protective effects of exercise on AD induced neurodegerative and neuroinflammatory process. Neuroperotective effects of exercise on the hippocampus seem to be increasing in immediate-early gene c-Fos expression in dentate gyrus; enhancing the Wnt3 expression and inhibiting glycogen synthase kinase-3β expression; increasing the 5-bro-mo-2'-deoxyridine-positive and doublecortin-positive cells (dentate gyrus); increasing the level of astrocytes glial fibrillary acidic protein and decrease in S100B protein, increasing in blood brain barrier integrity; prevention of oxidative stress injury, inducing morphological changes in astrocytes in the stratum radiatum of cornu ammonis 1(CA1) area; increase in cell proliferation and suppress apoptosis in dentate gyrus; increase in brain-derived neurotrophic factor and tropomyosin receptor kinase B expressions; enhancing the glycogen levels and normalizing the monocarboxylate transporter 2 expression.