Does sodium nitroprusside kill babies? A systematic review

Management of Heart Failure and Cardiogenic Shock in Pregnancy

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

While the prognosis of peripartum cardiomyopathy (PPCM) is generally more favorable than other cardiomyopathies, PPCM can be associated with cardiogenic shock and significant maternal morbidity in young women. The management of a pregnant woman in cardiogenic shock necessitates consideration of harm to the fetus. This review focuses on the management of these women.

RECENT FINDINGS

A number of advances have increased the repertoire of therapies available to manage PPCM. Increased understanding of PPCM pathophysiology has led to a number of new and experimental medications. In the current era, mechanical circulatory support has been gaining a stronger presence in critical care and can be used in cardiogenic shock of the pregnant patient refractory to medical therapy. We discuss medical therapies, mechanical circulatory support, arrhythmia management, and a delivery plan in the setting of cardiogenic shock secondary to PPCM.

Pharmacotherapy for hypertension in pregnant patients: special considerations

INTRODUCTION

Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy (HDP) represent a major cause of maternal, fetal and neonatal morbidity and mortality and identifies women at risk for cardiovascular and other chronic diseases later in life. When antihypertensive drugs are used during pregnancy, their benefit and harm to both mother and fetus should be evaluated.

AREAS COVERED

This review summarizes the pharmacological characteristics of the recommended antihypertensive drugs and their impact on mother and fetus when administered during pregnancy and/or post-partum. Drugs were identified using MEDLINE and the main international Guidelines for the management of HDP.

EXPERT OPINION

Although there is a consensus that severe hypertension should be treated, treatment of mild hypertension without end-organ damage (140-159/90-109 mmHg) remains controversial and there is no agreement on when to initiate therapy, blood pressure targets or recommended drugs in the absence of robust evidence for the superiority of one drug over others. Furthermore, the long-term outcomes of in-utero antihypertensive exposure remain uncertain. Therefore, evidence-based data regarding the treatment of HDP is lacking and well designed randomized clinical trials are needed to resolve all these controversial issues related to the management of HDP.

State-of-the-Art Diagnosis and Treatment of Hypertension in Pregnancy

Hypertension complicates up to 10% of pregnancies worldwide. Pregnancy hypertension is defined as systolic blood pressure (BP) equal to or greater than 140 mm Hg or diastolic BP equal to or greater than 90 mm Hg, usually on the basis of measurements in office/clinic settings and using various BP devices. Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy are classified into (1) chronic hypertension diagnosed before pregnancy or before 20 weeks' gestation, (2) gestational hypertension diagnosed at equal to or greater than 20 weeks, or (3) preeclampsia, defined restrictively as gestational hypertension with proteinuria or broadly as gestational hypertension with proteinuria or an end-organ manifestation consistent with preeclampsia. Absolute BP values equal to or greater than 140/90 mm Hg are associated with increased maternal and perinatal risks, particularly with preeclampsia. This review focuses on antihypertensive therapy of hypertensive disorders of pregnancy as a specific management strategy. Underpinning this therapy is the need for accurate measurement of BP, agreed-upon classification of pregnancy hypertension, agreed-upon BP thresholds for enhanced surveillance and antihypertensive treatment, and collaborative teamwork in management. Challenges relate to the methodology of studies on which care is based, as well as aspects of the care itself, particularly the unregulated use of home BP monitoring. Pitfalls include the unsubstantiated belief that nifedipine and magnesium sulfate cannot be used together and the perception that severe hypertension and nonsevere hypertension are separate entities rather than lying along a spectrum of BP values. The following must be addressed by future research: guidance for nuanced care as women transition between severe and nonsevere hypertension, personalized antihypertensive therapy, and incorporation of women's values into research priorities and clinical practice when antihypertensive care is chosen.

Low Concentration of Sodium Nitroprusside Promotes Mesenchymal Stem Cell Viability and Proliferation Through Elevation of Metabolic Activity

Background: Sodium nitroprusside (SNP) releases nitric oxide which has signaling role. Objectives: This study was conducted to understand the role of low concentration of SNP on viability, proliferation and biochemical properties of rat bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs). Materials and Methods: MSCs were used to evaluate the viability and morphology in presence of SNP (1 to 100 µM) at 12, 24 and 36 hours. Then 10, 50 and 100 µM of SNP as well as 24 hours were selected for further study. Cell proliferation was investigated by colony forming assay and population doubling number (PDN). Calcium (Ca2+) potassium (K+) and sodium (Na+) level as well as activity of alanine transaminase (ALT), aspartate transaminase (AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) were measured. Results: The MSCs viability increased when treatment with 1 and 10 µM at all the treatment periods while 90 and 100 µM caused significant reduction after 24 and 36 hours. Also 10 µM caused elevation whereas 50 and 100 µM showed reduction of proliferation ability. We observed morphological changes and significant reduction of all the investigated enzymes with 100 µM. Activity of ALT and AST were elevated with 10 µM after 24 hours, whereas LDH and ALP activities were not changed. Na+, K+ and Ca2+ was not changed due to 10 and 50 µM treatments, whereas 100 µM only elevated the level of calcium and sodium ions. Conclusions: Low concentration of SNP caused increase of viability and proliferation due to metabolic activity elevation. But the high concentration of SNP induced cell viability and proliferation reduction caused by metabolic and ionic imbalance as well as infrastructure alteration.

Hypertension in pregnancy

Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy represent the second commonest cause of direct maternal death and complicate an estimated 5-10 % of pregnancies. Classification systems aim to separate hypertension similar to that seen outside pregnancy (chronic and gestational hypertension) from the potentially fatal pregnancy-specific conditions. Preeclampsia, HELLP syndrome, and eclampsia represent increasing severities of this disease spectrum. The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists' 2013 guidelines no longer require proteinuria as a diagnostic criterion, because of its variable appearance in the disease spectrum. The cause involves inadequate cytotrophoblastic invasion of the myometrium, resulting in placental hypoperfusion and diffuse maternal endothelial dysfunction. Changes in angiogenic and antiangiogentic peptide profiles precede the onset of clinical preeclampsia. Women with preeclampsia should be closely monitored and receive magnesium sulfate intravenously if severe features, HELLP syndrome, or eclampsia occur. Definitive therapy is delivery of the fetus. Hypertension in pregnancy increases future maternal risk of hypertension and cardiovascular disorders.

Diagnosis, evaluation, and management of the hypertensive disorders of pregnancy

OBJECTIVE

This guideline summarizes the quality of the evidence to date and provides a reasonable approach to the diagnosis, evaluation and treatment of the hypertensive disorders of pregnancy (HDP).

EVIDENCE

The literature reviewed included the previous Society of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists of Canada (SOGC) HDP guidelines from 2008 and their reference lists, and an update from 2006. Medline, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (CDSR), Cochrane Central Registry of Controlled Trials (CCRCT) and Database of Abstracts and Reviews of Effects (DARE) were searched for literature published between January 2006 and March 2012. Articles were restricted to those published in French or English. Recommendations were evaluated using the criteria of the Canadian Task Force on Preventive Health Care and GRADE.

Haemorrhagic Strokes in Pregnancy and Puerperium

There is an increased risk of strokes in pregnancy and puerperium. Intracranial haemorrhage is the rarer of the two stroke subtypes but carries a greater morbidity and mortality for both the mother and the child. This review highlights the causes of pregnancy-related intracranial haemorrhage and its management. The incidence varies from region to region with the highest being reported from China and Taiwan. Majority of these haemorrhages are secondary to hypertensive disorders of pregnancy with smaller proportions related to aneurysm and arteriovenous malformation rupture. A small but important contributor is cortical venous thrombosis which, although predominantly gives rise to ischaemic lesions, may lead to parenchymal haemorrhages as well. Presentation is usually with headaches or seizures, with or without focal deficits. Diagnosis requires brain imaging with computerized tomography or magnetic resonance imaging, and the necessity of investigation when this diagnosis is suspected supersedes the small risk of fetal malformation. Management follows the general management principles for intracranial haemorrhage management. Blood pressures need to be strictly monitored and medicines used for controlling them may differ slightly due to teratogenic effects. For preeclampsia, early but safe delivery is the best treatment. For cortical venous thrombosis, low-molecular-weight heparin is the preferred agent. Aneurysms and vascular malformations need to be definitively treated to prevent re-bleed and this can be achieved through surgical or endovascular procedures. The timing of surgery depends on neurosurgical considerations. However, the timing and mode of delivery are governed by obstetric factors. Risk of future haemorrhage depends on whether the underlying aetiology can be and has been definitively treated.

Hypertension in pregnancy

Hypertension in pregnancy is diagnosed on systolic blood pressure greater than or equal to 140 mm Hg and/or diastolic greater than or equal to 90 mm Hg. The classification systems separate chronic and gestational hypertension from preeclampsia. Significant uncertainty regarding optimal management is reflected in the differing major international society recommendations. Blood pressure treatment is designed to minimize maternal end-organ damage. Methyldopa, labetalol, hydralazine, and nifedipine are oral options; angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin receptor antagonists are contraindicated. Women with preeclampsia should be closely monitored and receive intravenous magnesium sulfate.

How to manage hypertension in pregnancy effectively

The hypertensive disorders of pregnancy (HDP) are a leading cause of maternal mortality and morbidity in both well and under-resourced settings. Maternal, fetal, and neonatal complications of the HDP are concentrated among, but not limited to, women with pre-eclampsia. Pre-eclampsia is a systemic disorder of endothelial cell dysfunction and as such, blood pressure (BP) treatment is but one aspect of its management. The most appropriate BP threshold and goal of antihypertensive treatment are controversial. Variation between international guidelines has more to do with differences in opinion rather than differences in published data. For women with severe hypertension [defined as a sustained systolic BP (sBP) of ≥160 mmHg and/or a diastolic BP (dBP) of ≥110 mmHg], there is consensus that antihypertensive therapy should be given to lower the maternal risk of central nervous system complications. The bulk of the evidence relates to parenteral hydralazine and labetalol, or to oral calcium channel blockers such as nifedipine capsules. There is, however, no consensus regarding management of non-severe hypertension (defined as a sBP of 140-159 mmHg or a dBP of 90-109 mmHg), because the relevant randomized trials have been underpowered to define the maternal and perinatal benefits and risks. Although antihypertensive therapy may decrease the occurrence of BP values of 160-170/100-110 mmHg, therapy may also impair fetal growth. The potential benefits and risks do not seem to be associated with any particular drug or drug class. Oral labetalol and methyldopa are used most commonly, but many different β-adrenoceptor blockers and calcium channel blockers have been studied in clinical trials.

[Evidence-based practices published in Brazil: identification and analysis of their types and methodological approches]

This is an integrative review of Brazilian studies on evidence-based practices (EBP) in health, published in ISI/JCR journals in the last 10 years. The aim was to identify the specialty areas that most accomplished these studies, their foci and methodological approaches. Based on inclusion criteria, 144 studies were selected. The results indicate that most EBP studies addressed childhood and adolescence, infectious diseases, psychiatrics/mental health and surgery. The predominant foci were prevention, treatment/rehabilitation, diagnosis and assessment. The most used methods were systematic review with or without meta-analysis, protocol review or synthesis of available evidence studies, and integrative review. A strong multiprofessional expansion of EBP is found in Brazil, contributing to the search for more selective practices by collecting, recognizing and critically analyzing the produced knowledge. The study also contributes to the analysis itself of ways to do research and new research possibilities.

Antihypertensive drugs in pregnancy

Blood pressure targets and medications that are safe differ in pregnant women compared with nonpregnant individuals. The principles of treatment for mild, moderate, and severe hypertension in pregnancy, chronic versus gestational versus preeclampsia, and women hypertensive at term versus remote from term are reviewed. The choice of antihypertensive drugs also is discussed; methyldopa, labetalol, and nifedipine, among others, appear safe for use in pregnancy, whereas angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin receptor blockers should be avoided. The management of increased blood pressure in the postpartum period, and agents to use in lactation, are also discussed.

Therapeutics and anaesthesia

Many aspects of hypertension care outside pregnancy may be applied in pregnancy, but little information is available on which to base decision-making. It would seem reasonable to continue previous dietary salt restriction and physical activity in women with pre-existing (and controlled) hypertension, encourage a heart-healthy diet in all women with a hypertension disorder of pregnancy, and take patient preference into account when deciding on place of care. Although bed rest has become a key part of obstetric practice and for care of women with a hypertension disorder of pregnancy, in particular, the evidence is lacking to support this practice. This may also increase thromboembolic risk. Antihypertensive treatment is strongly advised for women with severe hypertension. The most common agents are parenteral labetalol, hydralazine, or oral nifedipine capsules. Clinicians should familiarise themselves with multiple agents. Until the role of antihypertensive treatment for non-severe hypertension in pregnancy is clarified by ongoing research, clinicians should explicitly state an individual patient's blood pressure goal, which could reasonably be anywhere between 130/80 and 155/105 mmHg. Labetalol and methyldopa are used most commonly. Breastfeeding should be encouraged. Many risk factors for hypertension (e.g. obesity), as well as hospitalisation and pre-eclampsia, all increase the thromboembolic risk for pregnant women, and care providers should consider thromboprophylaxis in the appropriate setting. Finally, anaesthetists play a critical role in the management of women with a hypertension disorder of pregnancy, and should be involved earlier rather than later in the course of their care.

Control of hypertension in pregnancy

The hypertensive disorders of pregnancy are a leading cause of maternal mortality and morbidity. Complications are not limited to preeclampsia but also complicate both preexisting hypertension and isolated gestational hypertension. Blood pressure (BP) management is important but is only one aspect of management of the hypertensive disorders of pregnancy, which may be caused or exacerbated by underlying uteroplacental mismatch between maternal supply and fetal demand. BP treatment thresholds and goals vary in international guidelines, largely reflecting differences in opinion rather than differences in published data. Because of short-term maternal risks, there is consensus that BP should be treated when sustained at greater than or equal to 160 to 170 mm Hg systolic and/or 110 mm Hg diastolic. There is no consensus regarding management of nonsevere hypertension, and randomized controlled trials involving just over 3000 women have not clarified the relative maternal and perinatal risks and benefits. Although antihypertensive therapy may decrease transient severe maternal hypertension, therapy may also impair fetal growth and perinatal health and outcomes. The CHIPS Trial (Control of Hypertension In Pregnancy Study) is recruiting to answer this question.

The management of severe hypertension

Although definitions of severe hypertension vary, thresholds of >or=160-170 mm Hg systolic and/or >or=110 mm Hg diastolic are in most common usage. A recent focus has been placed on systolic hypertension given the increased pulse pressure in these women. In pregnancy, there is a general consensus that severe hypertension should be treated. Among woman with pre-eclampsia, attention must be paid to other end organ dysfunction, as blood pressure (BP) management is but one aspect of care. The urgency of antihypertensive therapy will depend primarily on the absolute level of BP. However, most clinicians will also consider both the rate of BP rise and the presence of maternal symptoms. Most commonly, severe hypertension is treated with parenteral labetalol or hydralazine, or oral nifedipine (capsules or PA tablet). Other options will depend on local availability. MgSO(4) should not be relied on as an antihypertensive.