BMP4 Polymorphism is Associated With Nonsyndromic Oral Cleft in a Brazilian Population

Oral Cleft Related-Genes may be Involved in Root Curvature of Maxillary Lateral Incisors

The maxilla is formed by the medial nasal and maxillary processes fusion. The dental lamina develops from 2 origins connecting in the lateral incisor. The maxillary lateral incisor region is often affected by dental anomalies and clefting. It is possible that genes involved in oral cleft could also be associated with a variety of phenotypic variations in the maxillary lateral incisor. In this phenotype-genotype study, we explored the association between polymorphisms in the oral-cleft-related genes BMP2 and BMP4 and root curvature of maxillary lateral incisors.

Cross-sectional study.

Universities and private clinics.

Panoramic radiographs and DNA from 231 patients were analyzed.

Schneider method (1971) was applied to estimate the degree of root curvature of the maxillary lateral incisors and to classify the root as straight (5° or less) or curved (higher than 5°). Genetic polymorphisms in BMP2 (rs235768 and rs1005464) and BMP4 (rs17563) were genotyped. Statistical analysis was performed.

A total of 401 teeth (199 left and 202 right) were evaluated. Genetic analysis demonstrated trends toward association for the rs1005464 in BMP2 (P  =  .025) in co-dominant model and in dominant model (P  =  .026) for left incisors. The rs235768 in BMP2 showed trends toward association with the degree of root curvature in left incisors in the recessive model (P  =  .031). rs17563 in BMP4 also showed trends toward association with the degree of the root curvature in left incisors (P  =  .019).

BMP2 (rs235768 and rs1005464) and BMP4 (rs17563) might be involved in maxillary lateral incisor root curvature.

Exploring the Association Between Genetic Polymorphisms in Genes Involved in Craniofacial Development and Isolated Tooth Agenesis

Tooth agenesis is a common congenital anomaly in humans and is more common in oral cleft patients than in the general population. Many previous studies suggested that oral cleft and tooth agenesis share a similar genetic background. Therefore, this study explored the association between isolated tooth agenesis and genetic polymorphisms in genes that are crucial for craniofacial and tooth development. Panoramic radiographs, anamnesis, and genomic DNA from 273 patients were included. Patients were classified as tooth agenesis present, when at least one permanent tooth was congenitally missing. Patients with syndromes and oral cleft were excluded. Only unrelated patients were included. The genetic polymorphisms in BMP2 (rs235768 and rs1005464), BMP4 (rs17563), RUNX2 (rs59983488 and rs1200425), and SMAD6 (rs3934908 and rs2119261) were genotyped by real-time polymerase chain reaction. Genotype and allele distributions were compared between the tooth agenesis phenotypes and controls by Chi-square test. Haplotype and diplotype analysis were also performed, in addition to multivariate analysis (alpha of 0.05). A total of 86 tooth agenesis cases and 187 controls were evaluated. For the rs235768 in BMP2, patients carrying TT genotype have higher chance to present tooth agenesis [p < 0.001; prevalence ratio (PR) = 8.29; 95% confidence interval (CI) = 4.26–16.10]. The TT genotype in rs3934908 (SMAD6) was associated with higher chance to present third molar agenesis (p = 0.023; PR = 3.25; 95% CI = 1.17–8.99). BMP2 was also associated in haplotype and diplotype analysis with tooth agenesis. In conclusion, genetic polymorphisms in BMP2 and SMAD6 were associated with isolated tooth agenesis.

Association of BMP4 rs17563 Polymorphism with Nonsyndromic Cleft Lip with or without Cleft Palate Risk: Literature Review and Comprehensive Meta-Analysis

Although published individual studies have reported associations between BMP4 rs17563 polymorphism and nonsyndromic cleft lip with or without cleft palate (NSCLP) risk, the results are conflicting. This meta-analysis was conducted to assess the association based on multiple studies. Methods: A comprehensive literature search up to October 1st, 2019 was performed using PubMed, Science Direct, China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), and Wanfang databases. Results: Fourteen case-control studies with 2,058 NSCLP cases and 2,557 controls were selected. There was no significant association between BMP4 rs17563 polymorphism and risk of NSCLP overall. Subgroup analysis revealed that BMP4 rs17563 polymorphism was associated with NSCLP risk in Chinese and Brazilian populations. Conclusions: This meta-analysis suggests that BMP4 rs17563 polymorphism was not associated with NSCLP risk in overall population. However, BMP4 rs17563 polymorphism may be a risk factor for development of NSCLP in Chinese and Brazilians.

Genetics and signaling mechanisms of orofacial clefts

Craniofacial development involves several complex tissue movements including several fusion processes to form the frontonasal and maxillary structures, including the upper lip and palate. Each of these movements are controlled by many different factors that are tightly regulated by several integral morphogenetic signaling pathways. Subject to both genetic and environmental influences, interruption at nearly any stage can disrupt lip, nasal, or palate fusion and result in a cleft. Here, we discuss many of the genetic risk factors that may contribute to the presentation of orofacial clefts in patients, and several of the key signaling pathways and underlying cellular mechanisms that control lip and palate formation, as identified primarily through investigating equivalent processes in animal models, are examined.

Analysis of permanent second molar development in children born with cleft lip and palate

OBJECTIVE

The study of dental development in individuals born with cleft lip and palate (CLP) serves to determine when orthodontic intervention should start. To evaluate the permanent second molar development in children born with cleft lip and palate according to Demirjian's and Nolla's methods.

METHODOLOGY

Out of a total of 513 digital panoramic radiographs, 113 pairs of children aged 3 to 16 years were selected. The exams were from children born with or without cleft lip and palate, of the same sex, with an age difference of up to 30 days. The images were analyzed by three examiners and reliability was checked through intra-examiner agreement by the Kappa test. The data were analyzed by Wilcoxon's and Mann-Whitney tests according to each dataset.

RESULTS

The findings indicated delayed development of the permanent second molars in children with CLP (P<0.001). The development of the right permanent second molar was delayed compared to the left molar in children with CLP. Moreover, mandibular teeth showed significantly earlier development than maxillary teeth in both the case and control groups. There was no significant difference in the development of permanent second molars between sexes.

CONCLUSION

Children with CLP presented delay in the development of permanent second molars.

Association between MSX1 rs12532 polymorphism with nonsyndromic unilateral complete cleft lip and palate and tooth agenesis

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the association of MSX1 rs12532 polymorphism with the risk of nonsyndromic unilateral complete cleft lip and palate (NSCLP) and tooth agenesis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study is comprised of 384 individuals divided into 4 groups: group 1, patients with unilateral complete NSCLP and premolar agenesis (n = 57); group 2, patients with unilateral NSCLP without tooth agenesis (n = 117); group 3, patients with premolar agenesis without oral cleft (n = 53) and group 4 (n = 157), a control group with individuals without tooth agenesis and oral cleft. Genotyping of rs12532 was carried out with Taqman chemistry, and associations were investigated using logistic regression analyses.

RESULTS

Overall rs12532 allele and genotype distributions revealed no significant differences between the groups of NSCLP or tooth agenesis.

CONCLUSION

Although our results are consistent with a lack of association of MSX1 rs12532 and the risk of unilateral NSCLP and tooth agenesis, further studies with additional SNPs and a more diverse ethnic cohort are warranted.

Association between BMP4 gene polymorphisms and cleft lip with or without cleft palate in a population from South China

OBJECTIVE

Previous studies have suggested an association between several polymorphisms of the BMP4 gene and susceptibility to non-syndromic cleft lip with or without cleft palate (NSCL/P) in various populations. However, this association may vary according to ethnic group and the form of NSCL/P. This study analyzed the association between the BMP4 gene polymorphisms rs762642, rs17563, and rs10130587 with the risk of cleft lip only (CLO), cleft palate only (CPO), and cleft lip with palate (CLP) in a population from South China.

METHODS

This case-control study included 165 patients with NSCL/P (53 patients with CPO, 52 with CLO, and 60 with CLP) and 52 healthy volunteers. Peripheral blood samples were collected from all subjects to genotype the rs762642, rs17563, and rs10130587 polymorphisms by direct sequencing. Genotype and allelic frequencies of these polymorphisms were compared between healthy volunteers and patients with various forms of NSCL/P.

RESULTS

The genotype and allelic frequencies of rs762642 differed significantly between subgroups (CPO and CLP) and normal controls, whereas a significant difference was observed only in the CLO subgroup for the rs17563 polymorphism and in the CLO and CLP groups for the rs10130587 polymorphism. In addition, we identified a novel association of a BMP4 gene polymorphism, which was in linkage disequilibrium with the rs10130587 polymorphism, with CLO and CLP.

CONCLUSION

The BMP4 gene polymorphisms rs762642, rs17563, and rs10130587 exhibit different associations with different forms of NSCL/P, suggesting that different forms of NSCL/P may have different etiologies.

Association between a single-nucleotide polymorphism in the GREM1 gene and non-syndromic orofacial cleft in the Chinese population

BACKGROUND

Non-syndromic orofacial cleft (NSOC) is a common craniofacial deformity among newborns. The GREM1 gene is correlated with orofacial development. The aim of our study was to investigate the association between a single-nucleotide polymorphism in the GREM1 gene and this malformation in the Chinese population.

METHODS

The SNaPshot mini-sequencing technique was used to genotype the locus rs1258763 of the GREM1 gene in 331 patients with NSOC and 271 individuals in a control group.

RESULTS

For GREM1 rs1258763, there was a significant difference between the NSOC case group and control group (P = .022). Children carrying GA and GA/AA genotypes had an increased risk of NSOC (OR=1.62, 95%CI: 1.15-2.30; OR=1.52, 95%CI: 1.09-2.12). In the cleft subgroup, we found that the GREM1 rs1258763 GA genotype might contribute to the elevated risk of the cleft lip with or without cleft palate (CL/P) (P = .029). Non-significant differences were found between the cleft palate only (CPO) and control groups (P = .077).

CONCLUSION

Our findings revealed that the GREM1 polymorphism was significantly associated with the risk of NSOC in the Chinese population.

BMP4 rs17563 polymorphism and nonsyndromic cleft lip with or without cleft palate: A meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Previous studies have investigated the relationship between human bone morphogenetic protein 4 gene (BMP4) rs17563 polymorphism and nonsyndromic cleft lip with or without cleft palate (NSCL/P). However, the results remained inconsistent. Therefore, we conducted a meta-analysis to assess the effect of BMP4 rs17563 polymorphism on NSCL/P.

METHODS

Electronic searches in 5 databases were conducted to select all eligible studies up to March 2017. Odds ratios (ORs) with the corresponding 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated to estimate the association. Sensitivity analysis was performed to evaluate the results stability by excluding each study in turn. Publication bias was assessed by Begg funnel plots and Egger test.

RESULTS

A total of 11 case-control studies were included in the meta-analysis. The pooled frequency of the minor allele C for BMP4 rs17563 was lower in Asians (pooled frequency = 0.33, 95% CI: 0.29-0.37) than in Brazilian population (pooled frequency = 0.47, 95% CI: 0.40-0.54). The overall results showed no significant association of BMP4 rs17563 polymorphism with NSCL/P risk. However, the results turned out to be different when stratified by ethnicity. BMP4 rs17563 polymorphism was associated with a higher risk of NSCL/P among Asian ethnicity (C vs T: OR = 1.33, 95% CI: 1.02-1.73; CC vs TT: OR = 2.10, 95% CI: 1.28-3.43; CC vs TT + TC: OR = 2.16, 95% CI: 1.34-3.47) and among Caucasian population (TC vs TT: OR = 3.36, 95% CI: 2.03-5.54; TC + CC vs TT: OR = 3.71, 95% CI: 2.43-5.69). Among Brazilian population, BMP4 rs17563 polymorphism exerted a significantly protective effect on NSCL/P (C vs T: OR = 0.70, 95% CI: 0.58-0.84; CC vs TT: OR = 0.54, 95% CI: 0.33-0.88; TC vs TT: OR = 0.55, 95% CI: 0.44-0.69; TC + CC vs TT: OR = 0.56, 95% CI: 0.45-0.69).

CONCLUSION

The results suggest that the C allele of BMP4 rs17563 may be a risk factor for NSCL/P among Asians and Caucasians, and may be a protective factor for NSCL/P in Brazilian population. Future large-sample studies with appropriate designs among specific populations are warranted to evaluate the association.

Association between Tooth Agenesis and Skeletal Malocclusions

Objectives

The aim of this study was to evaluate the association between tooth agenesis and skeletal malocclusions in Brazilian non-syndromic orthodontic patients.

Material and Methods

Pretreatment orthodontic records of 348 patients of both genders and with various skeletal malocclusions were examined. Tooth agenesis was evaluated in panoramic radiographs. Angular measurements were taken from lateral cephalometric radiographs to classify the patient’s malocclusion as skeletal Class I, Class II and Class III. Subjects were divided into 2 groups, “with tooth agenesis” and “without tooth agenesis”. Chi-square or Fisher exact test was used to compare categorical data. ANOVA with Tukey’s post-test was used for means comparisons. An alpha of 5% was established.

Results

From 348 analysed patients, 28 presented tooth agenesis. There was no difference between genders (P = 0.27) nor mean age (P = 0.16). The most prevalent skeletal malocclusion was Class I (63.11%), followed by Class II (25.94%), and Class III (10.95%). The mean of congenitally missing teeth was 1.3 (SD 0.13). Thirteen subjects had premolar agenesis, 13 upper lateral incisor agenesis, 4 lower incisor agenesis and 2 molars agenesis. The group with tooth agenesis presented A point-nasion-B point (ANB) angle smaller (1.66 [SD 2.52]) than the group without tooth agenesis (2.86 [SD 2.49]) (P = 0.01). ANB angle had a negative correlation with the number of congenitally missing teeth (P = 0.039; r = -0.39).

Conclusions

Tooth agenesis is associated with a smaller A point-nasion-B point angle and is negatively correlated with the number of congenitally missing teeth.

BMP2 and BMP4 variations and risk of non-syndromic cleft lip and palate

OBJECTIVE

Non-syndromic cleft lip with or without cleft palate (CL/P) is one of the most common congenital anomalies and arises from the interaction of environmental and genetic factors. The objective of this study was to investigate the association between the BMP2 (bone morphogenetic protein 2) and BMP4 (bone morphogenetic protein 4) polymorphisms with non-syndromic CL/P to clarify the potential role of these genes in the etiology of CL/P in Iranian population.

DESIGN

The allelic and genotypic frequencies of BMP2 rs235768 A>T and BMP4 rs17563 T>C polymorphisms were determined in 107 unrelated Iranian subjects with non-syndromic CL/P and 186 control subjects using PCR and RFLP methods, and the results were compared with healthy controls. A p-value of <0.05 was considered statistically significant.

RESULTS

The BMP2 rs235768 AT genotype was significantly higher (P=0.009, OR=3, 95% CI=1.3-7.0) in the CL/P (59.8%) than the control group (33.3%). Similarly, the BMP4 rs17563 TC genotype were significantly higher (P=0.008, OR=3.7, 95% CI=1.4-9.9) in the CL/P (70.0%) than the control group (44.6%).

CONCLUSION

The BMP2 rs235768 A>T and BMP4 rs17563 T>C polymorphisms could be considered as the risk factor for non-syndromic CL/P in Iranian population.

The functional EGF+61 polymorphism and nonsyndromic oral clefts susceptibility in a Brazilian population

Nonsyndromic oral clefts are considered a problem of public health in Brazil, presenting a multifactorial etiology that involves genetic and environmental components, such as maternal alcohol consumption. Several candidate genes have been investigated to identify some association with nonsyndromic clefts risk. The epidermal growth factor (EGF) gene is implicated in the normal craniofacial development and its functional +61 A>G polymorphism has been related to cancer susceptibility. It has been suggested that cancer and oral clefts may share the same molecular pathways.Objective Our goal was to evaluate the association between the EGF+61 A>G polymorphism and nonsyndromic oral clefts susceptibility.Material and Methods The case-control study included 218 cleft cases and 253 controls from Brazil. The control group was comprised of individuals without congenital malformations, dental anomalies and family history of clefts. The cleft phenotypes and subphenotypes were determined based on clinical examination. Genomic DNA was extracted from oral mucosa cells obtained by mouthwash. The EGF+61 A>G polymorphism genotype was determined by polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism.Results We noticed the association between maternal alcohol consumption during pregnancy and cleft occurrence. The A allele and AA genotype were over-represented in cleft cases compared with control group when we considered the bilateral cleft lip with or without cleft palate (CL±P) cases, cleft cases with tooth agenesis and cleft cases presenting family history of cleft, but the differences were not statistically significant. Contradictorily, the G allele was higher in cleft palate only (CP) cases than in control group, showing a borderline p value. Comparing the different cleft phenotypes, we observed statistical differences between CP and CL±P cases. Our data suggest the EGF+61 A>G polymorphism was not related with nonsyndromic oral clefts susceptibility in a Brazilian population, but supported the different genetic background between CL±P and CP. Moreover, we confirmed the potential effect of maternal alcohol intake on cleft risk in our population.

Single nucleotide polymorphism of bone morphogenetic protein 4 gene: A risk factor of non-syndromic cleft lip with or without palate

BACKGROUND

The bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signalling pathway is crucial in a number of developmental processes and is critical in the formation of variety of craniofacial elements including cranial neural crest, facial primordium, tooth, lip and palate. It is an important mediator in regulation of lip and palate fusion, cartilage and bone formation.

AIM

To study the role of mutation of BMP4 genes in the aetiology of non-syndromic cleft lip with or without palate (NSCL ± P) and identify it directly from human analyses.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A case-control study was done to evaluate whether BMP4T538C polymorphism, resulting in an amino acid change of Val=Ala (V152A) in the polypeptide, is associated with NSCL ± P in an Indian paediatric population. Genotypes of 100 patients with NSCL ± P and 100 controls (in whom absence of CL ± P was confirmed in three generations) were detected using a polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism strategy. Logistic regression was performed to evaluate allele and genotype association with NSCLP.

RESULTS

Results showed significant association between homozygous CC genotype with CL ± P (odds ratio [OR]-5.59 and 95% confidence interval [CI] = 2.85-10.99). The 538C allele carriers showed an increased risk of NSCL ± P as compared with 538 T allele (OR - 4.2% CI = 2.75-6.41).

CONCLUSION

This study suggests an association between SNP of BMP4 gene among carriers of the C allele and increased risk for NSCLP in an Indian Population. Further studies on this aspect can scale large heights in preventive strategies for NSCLP that may soon become a reality.

Association between BMP4 rs17563 polymorphism and NSCL/P risk: a meta-analysis

Objective. To investigate the association between bone morphogenetic protein 4 (BMP4) rs17563 polymorphism and nonsyndromic cleft lip with or without palate (NSCL/P) risk. Methods. Four online databases were researched and the related publications were collected. Odds ratio (OR) with 95% confidence interval (CI) was applied to assess the relationship; publication bias, metaregression, and sensitivity analysis were conducted to guarantee the strength of results. Results. Six published case-control studies were collected. Overall, no significant association between BMP4 rs17563 polymorphism and NSCL/P risk was found. It was notable that significant susceptibility on different ethnicity was observed in the stratified analysis. For Chinese population, the BMP4 rs17563 polymorphism was a significantly increased risk for NSCL/P (C versus T: OR = 1.52, 95% CI = 1.28–1.82, P < 0.01, I² = 0%; CC versus TT: OR = 2.58, 95% CI = 1.74–3.82, P < 0.01, I² = 0%; TC + CC versus TT: OR = 1.45, 95% CI = 1.14–1.84, P < 0.01, I² = 0%; CC versus TT + TC: OR=2.46, 95% CI = 1.46–4.14, P < 0.01, I² = 47.0%). On the contrary, significantly protective effects were found in Brazilian population (C versus T: OR = 0.69, 95% CI = 0.50–0.96, P = 0.03, I² = 68.5%; TC versus TT: OR = 0.52, 95% CI = 0.40–0.68, P < 0.01, I² = 0%; TC + CC versus TT: OR = 0.52, 95% CI = 0.35–0.78, P < 0.010, I² = 54.4%). Conclusion. This meta-analysis indicated that BMP4 rs17563 polymorphism could play a different role during the development of NSCL/P based on ethnicity diversity.

DLX1 and MMP3 contribute to oral clefts with and without positive family history of cancer

OBJECTIVE

It has been suggested that oral clefts and cancer share a common genetic background. This study aimed to investigate the epidemiological and molecular association between oral clefts and cancer.

METHODS

One hundred forty-eight nuclear families with oral clefts and 162 subjects with no birth defect were recruited. Data on self-reported family history of cancer among first, second, and third degree relatives of each patient were collected via a structured questionnaire. We also investigated the association between polymorphisms in the genes AXIN2, BMP2, BMP4, BMP7, DLX1, DLX2, and MMP3 and oral cleft with and without history of cancer. Markers in these genes were genotyped using real time PCR. Chi-square and t-test were used to assess the differences about self-reported family history of cancer between oral cleft and non-cleft individuals. The transmission disequilibrium test (TDT) was used to analyze the distortion of the inheritance of alleles from parents to their affected offspring.

RESULTS

Families with oral clefts had an increased risk of having a family history of cancer (p=0.01; odds ratio=1.79; 95% confidence interval, 1.07-1.87). TDT results showed an association between DLX1 and cleft lip and palate, in which the A allele was undertransmited (p=0.022). For MMP3, G was undertransmited among affected progeny (p=0.019) in cleft palate subgroup.

CONCLUSION

Oral clefts were associated with positive self-reported family history of cancer and with variants in DLX1 and MMP3. The association between oral clefts and cancer raises interesting possibilities to identify risk markers for cancer.

Joint testing of genotypic and gene-environment interaction identified novel association for BMP4 with non-syndromic CL/P in an Asian population using data from an International Cleft Consortium

Background

Non-syndromic cleft lip with or without cleft palate (NSCL/P) is a common disorder with complex etiology. The Bone Morphogenetic Protein 4 gene (BMP4) has been considered a prime candidate gene with evidence accumulated from animal experimental studies, human linkage studies, as well as candidate gene association studies. The aim of the current study is to test for linkage and association between BMP4 and NSCL/P that could be missed in genome-wide association studies (GWAS) when genotypic (G) main effects alone were considered.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We performed the analysis considering G and interactions with multiple maternal environmental exposures using additive conditional logistic regression models in 895 Asian and 681 European complete NSCL/P trios. Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) that passed the quality control criteria among 122 genotyped and 25 imputed single nucleotide variants in and around the gene were used in analysis. Selected maternal environmental exposures during 3 months prior to and through the first trimester of pregnancy included any personal tobacco smoking, any environmental tobacco smoke in home, work place or any nearby places, any alcohol consumption and any use of multivitamin supplements. A novel significant association held for rs7156227 among Asian NSCL/P and non-syndromic cleft lip and palate (NSCLP) trios after Bonferroni correction which was not seen when G main effects alone were considered in either allelic or genotypic transmission disequilibrium tests. Odds ratios for carrying one copy of the minor allele without maternal exposure to any of the four environmental exposures were 0.58 (95%CI = 0.44, 0.75) and 0.54 (95%CI = 0.40, 0.73) for Asian NSCL/P and NSCLP trios, respectively. The Bonferroni P values corrected for the total number of 117 tested SNPs were 0.0051 (asymptotic P = 4.39*10⁻⁵) and 0.0065 (asymptotic P = 5.54*10⁻⁵), accordingly. In European trios, no significant association was seen for any SNPs after Bonferroni corrections for the total number of 120 tested SNPs.

Conclusions/Significance

Our findings add evidence from GWAS to support the role of BMP4 in susceptibility to NSCL/P originally identified in linkage and candidate gene association studies.

Genetic association for caries susceptibility among cleft lip and/or palate individuals

AIM

To evaluate the association of the polymorphisms in the TGFB3 gene (rs2268626), and the BMP4 gene (rs17563) with dental caries in two different groups (noncleft group and oral cleft group) from a cleft center located at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 486 unrelated children and adolescents with or without caries were evaluated using a cohort design. Data on oral health habits was obtained through a questionnaire and caries data was collected by clinical examination. Genotyping of the selected polymorphisms for TGFB3 and BMP4 were carried out by real-time PCR using the TaqMan assay method from a genomic DNA isolated from buccal epithelial cells of all children and adolescents.

RESULTS

No association was found between BMP4 polymorphism and caries among individuals from both groups. For TGFB3 polymorphism, significant differences were observed for allele and genotype frequencies between caries free and caries affected individuals in oral cleft group (p = 0.013 and 0.006 for allele and genotype frequencies respectively).

CONCLUSION

Our findings provide evidence suggesting that TGFB3 may be involved in caries susceptibility in oral cleft group.

CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE

In the future, the possibility of identifying genes related to caries susceptibility can lead to counseling of the individual that carries gene alterations, with the aim of working on preventive measures for caries as well as bioengineering treatments.

Cleft Palate-Craniofacial Journal 50th anniversary editorial board commentary: anatomy, basic sciences, and genetics--then and now

To celebrate the 50th year of the Cleft Palate-Craniofacial Journal we look back to where we started in 1964 and where we are now, and we speculate about directions for the future in a "Then and Now" editorial series. This editorial examines changing trends and perspectives in anatomical, basic science, and genetic studies published in this 50-year interval. In volume 1 there were 45 total papers, seven (16%) of which were peer-reviewed basic science and genetic articles published: four in anatomy, three in craniofacial biology, and none in genetics. In contrast, in volume 50, of 113 articles there were 47 (42%) peer-reviewed basic science and genetic articles published: 30 in anatomy, five in craniofacial biology, and 12 in genetics. Topical analysis of published manuscripts then and now reveal that similar topics in anatomy and craniofacial biology are still being researched today (e.g., phenotypic variability, optimal timing of surgery, presurgical orthopedics, bone grafting); whereas, most of the more recent papers use advanced technology to address old questions. In contrast, genetic publications have clearly increased in frequency during the last 50 years, which parallels advances in the field during this time. However, all of us have noticed that the more "cutting-edge" papers in these areas are not being submitted for publication to the journal, but instead to discipline-specific journals. Concerted efforts are therefore indicated to attract and publish these cutting-edge papers in order to keep the Cleft Palate-Craniofacial Journal in the forefront of orofacial cleft and craniofacial anomaly research and to provide a valuable service to American Cleft Palate-Craniofacial Association members.