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Paulraj PS, Rajamannar V, Renu G, Kumar A. Changing Paradigm in the epidemiology of Japanese encephalitis in India. J Vector Borne Dis 2022; 59:312-319. [PMID: 36751762 DOI: 10.4103/0972-9062.345180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Japanese encephalitis (JE) is a very serious public health problem in India and the conducive environment permit its emergence in non-endemic areas in the country. There are constant changes taking place in the pattern of current agricultural practices and vector breeding habitats which had far-reaching consequences on the epidemiology of JE and the severity of epidemic outbreaks today. Due to the continuous ecological changes taking place, vectors changed in their breeding dynamics, feeding, and resting behavior and started invading previously non-endemic areas. JE has recently spread to new territories due to land-use changes, including forest fragmentation and concentrated livestock production. Changes in the livestock population decreased the cattle pig ratio which enhanced the Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) infection. This review brings forth the present widespread changes encountered that grossly impact the risk of infection in many places for the emergence of Japanese encephalitis and to address the implications for its control.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Govindarajan Renu
- ICMR-Vector Control Research Centre, Field Station, Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Ashwani Kumar
- ICMR Vector Control Research Centre, Puducherry, India
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Japanese encephalitis in Malaysia: An overview and timeline. Acta Trop 2018; 185:219-229. [PMID: 29856986 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2018.05.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2018] [Revised: 05/26/2018] [Accepted: 05/26/2018] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Japanese encephalitis (JE) is a vector-borne zoonotic disease caused by the Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV). It causes encephalitis in human and horses, and may lead to reproductive failure in sows. The first human encephalitis case in Malaya (now Malaysia) was reported during World War II in a British prison in 1942. Later, encephalitis was observed among race horses in Singapore. In 1951, the first JEV was isolated from the brain of an encephalitis patient. The true storyline of JE exposure among humans and animals has not been documented in Malaysia. In some places such as Sarawak, JEV has been isolated from mosquitoes before an outbreak in 1992. JE is an epidemic in Malaysia except Sarawak. There are four major outbreaks reported in Pulau Langkawi (1974), Penang (1988), Perak and Negeri Sembilan (1998-1999), and Sarawak (1992). JE is considered endemic only in Sarawak. Initially, both adults and children were victims of JE in Malaysia, however, according to the current reports; JE infection is only lethal to children in Malaysia. This paper describes a timeline of JE cases (background of each case) from first detection to current status, vaccination programs against JE, diagnostic methods used in hospitals and factors which may contribute to the transmission of JE among humans and animals in Malaysia.
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Kakkar M, Chaturvedi S, Saxena VK, Dhole TN, Kumar A, Rogawski ET, Abbas S, Venkataramanan VV, Chatterjee P. Identifying sources, pathways and risk drivers in ecosystems of Japanese Encephalitis in an epidemic-prone north Indian district. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0175745. [PMID: 28463989 PMCID: PMC5412994 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0175745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2016] [Accepted: 03/30/2017] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Japanese Encephalitis (JE) has caused repeated outbreaks in endemic pockets of India. This study was conducted in Kushinagar, a highly endemic district, to understand the human-animal-ecosystem interactions, and the drivers that influence disease transmission. Utilizing the ecosystems approach, a cross-sectional, descriptive study, employing mixed methods design was employed. Four villages (two with pig-rearing and two without) were randomly selected from a high, a medium and a low burden (based on case counts) block of Kushinagar. Children, pigs and vectors were sampled from these villages. A qualitative arm was incorporated to explain the findings from the quantitative surveys. All human serum samples were screened for JE-specific IgM using MAC ELISA and negative samples for JE RNA by rRT-PCR in peripheral blood mononuclear cells. In pigs, IgG ELISA and rRT-PCR for viral RNA were used. Of the 242 children tested, 24 tested positive by either rRT-PCR or MAC ELISA; in pigs, 38 out of the 51 pigs were positive. Of the known vectors, Culex vishnui was most commonly isolated across all biotopes. Analysis of 15 blood meals revealed human blood in 10 samples. Univariable analysis showed that gender, religion, lack of indoor residual spraying of insecticides in the past year, indoor vector density (all species), and not being vaccinated against JE in children were significantly associated with JE positivity. In multivariate analysis, only male gender remained as a significant risk factor. Based on previous estimates of symptomatic: asymptomatic cases of JE, we estimate that there should have been 618 cases from Kushinagar, although only 139 were reported. Vaccination of children and vector control measures emerged as major control activities; they had very poor coverage in the studied villages. In addition, lack of awareness about the cause of JE, lack of faith in the conventional medical healthcare system and multiple referral levels causing delay in diagnosis and treatment emerged as factors likely to result in adverse clinical outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manish Kakkar
- Public Health Foundation of India, Gurgaon, Haryana, India
| | - Sanjay Chaturvedi
- Department of Community Medicine, University College of Medical Sciences, Delhi, India
| | | | - Tapan N. Dhole
- Department of Microbiology, Sanjay Gandhi Post Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Ashok Kumar
- Department of Veterinary Public Health, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | | | - Syed Abbas
- Public Health Foundation of India, Gurgaon, Haryana, India
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Evans MV, Dallas TA, Han BA, Murdock CC, Drake JM. Data-driven identification of potential Zika virus vectors. eLife 2017; 6:e22053. [PMID: 28244371 PMCID: PMC5342824 DOI: 10.7554/elife.22053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2016] [Accepted: 02/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Zika is an emerging virus whose rapid spread is of great public health concern. Knowledge about transmission remains incomplete, especially concerning potential transmission in geographic areas in which it has not yet been introduced. To identify unknown vectors of Zika, we developed a data-driven model linking vector species and the Zika virus via vector-virus trait combinations that confer a propensity toward associations in an ecological network connecting flaviviruses and their mosquito vectors. Our model predicts that thirty-five species may be able to transmit the virus, seven of which are found in the continental United States, including Culex quinquefasciatus and Cx. pipiens. We suggest that empirical studies prioritize these species to confirm predictions of vector competence, enabling the correct identification of populations at risk for transmission within the United States.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle V Evans
- Odum School of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, United States
- Center for the Ecology of Infectious Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, United States
| | - Tad A Dallas
- Odum School of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, United States
- Department of Environmental Science and Policy, University of California-Davis, Davis, United States
| | - Barbara A Han
- Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies, Millbrook, United States
| | - Courtney C Murdock
- Odum School of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, United States
- Center for the Ecology of Infectious Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, United States
- Department of Infectious Disease, University of Georgia, Athens, United States
- Center for Tropical Emerging Global Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, United States
- Center for Vaccines and Immunology, University of Georgia, Athens, United States
- River Basin Center, University of Georgia, Athens, United States
| | - John M Drake
- Odum School of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, United States
- Center for the Ecology of Infectious Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, United States
- River Basin Center, University of Georgia, Athens, United States
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Vincent S, Kovendan K, Chandramohan B, Kamalakannan S, Kumar PM, Vasugi C, Praseeja C, Subramaniam J, Govindarajan M, Murugan K, Benelli G. Swift Fabrication of Silver Nanoparticles Using Bougainvillea glabra: Potential Against the Japanese Encephalitis Vector, Culex tritaeniorhynchus Giles (Diptera: Culicidae). J CLUST SCI 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s10876-016-1038-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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Impoinvil DE, Baylis M, Solomon T. Japanese encephalitis: on the One Health agenda. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2013; 365:205-47. [PMID: 22886540 DOI: 10.1007/82_2012_243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Japanese encephalitis (JE) is one of the most well studied arthropod zoonotic diseases with human and animal research and their integration spanning 6-7 decades. JE research and policy in some Asian countries has epitomized the 'One Health' strategy of attainment of optimal health for people, animals, and the environment. However, despite significant mitigation of JE in some Asian countries primarily due to vaccination programs and infrastructural development, JE continues to be a major disease burden in the Asian region. Arthropod-borne zoonotic infections such as JE present some of the greatest challenges to animal and human health globally. Their emergence involves a complex interplay of vectors, hosts, environment, climate, and anthropogenic factors. Therefore, the integrated management of infectious agents that affect both humans and animals is perhaps the most highly coveted strategy that public health policy makers aspire to attain in the twenty-first century. This is in response to the seemingly growing challenges of controlling the burden of emerging infectious diseases such as shrinking financial budgets and resources, increasing demand for public health deliverables, demographic shifts and mobility, global trade economies, and climate and landscape changes. Thus, while JE research and policy is an excellent example of the One Health strategy in action, further work is required to address the obstinate burden of transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel E Impoinvil
- Department of Epidemiology and Population Health, Liverpool University Climate and Infectious Diseases of Animals (LUCINDA group), University of Liverpool-Institute of Infection and Global Health, Leahurst, Neston, Cheshire, CH64 7TE, UK
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Elumalai K, Dhanasekaran S, Krishnappa K. Toxicity of saponin isolated from Gymnema sylvestre R. Br. (Asclepiadaceae) against Culex tritaeniorhynchus Giles (Diptera: Culicidae) Japanese encephalitis vector mosquito in India. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 2012; 54:337-44. [PMID: 23152320 DOI: 10.1590/s0036-46652012000600009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2012] [Accepted: 05/23/2012] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
To determine the larvicidal activity of various extracts of Gymnema sylvestre against the Japanese Encephalitis vector, Culex tritaeniorynchus in Tamilnadu, India. To identify the active principle present in the promising fraction obtained in Chlorofom:Methanol extract of Fraction 2. The G. sylvestre leaf extracts were tested, employing WHO procedure against fourth instar larvae of C. tritaeniorhynchus and the larval mortalities were recorded at various concentrations (6.25, 12.5, 25.0, 50 and 100 µg/mL); the 24h LC50 values of the G. Sylvestre leaf extracts were determined following Probit analysis. It was noteworthy that treatment level 100 µg/mL exhibited highest mortality rates for the three different crude extracts and was significantly different from the mean mortalities recorded for the other concentrations. The LC50 values of 34.756 µg/mL (24.475-51.41), 31.351 µg/mL (20.634-47.043) and 28.577 µg/mL (25.159-32.308) were calculated for acetone, chloroform and methanol extract with the chi-square values of 10.301, 31.351 and 4.093 respectively. The present investigation proved that G. Sylvestre could be possibly utilized as an important component in the Vector Control Program.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kupppusamy Elumalai
- Centre for Entomotoxicity Studies, Govt. Arts College, Tamilnadu, India, 600 035
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Impoinvil DE, Baylis M, Solomon T. Japanese Encephalitis: On the One Health Agenda. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2012. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-662-45792-4_243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Calvete C, Estrada R, Miranda MA, Del Rio R, Borrás D, Beldron FJ, Martínez A, Calvo AJ, Lucientes J. Entry of bluetongue vector Culicoides imicola into livestock premises in Spain. MEDICAL AND VETERINARY ENTOMOLOGY 2009; 23:202-208. [PMID: 19531066 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2915.2009.00801.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Culicoides imicola Kieffer is considered to be the main vector of bluetongue disease (BT) and African horse sickness (AHS) in the Mediterranean basin. It has been assumed that this midge species is exophilic and, consequently, that stabling of livestock should provide effective protection against these diseases. This study presents the results of sampling surveys for C. imicola carried out both inside and outside stables on three farms in mainland Spain. The number of C. imicola captured varied as a function of the populations sampled and trap location (inside vs. outside). The daily mean number captured inside during the sampling of each farm population was directly correlated with the daily mean number captured outside, but daily correlation of captures was not observed. By contrast with previous studies, the mean catch of C. imicola inside was consistently higher than that outside. No clear effect of stable characteristics on the degree of entry was detected. In addition, proportions of males and age-graded female groups varied among populations and with trap location. Proportionately more males and fewer engorged females were captured outside than inside, although the proportions varied among stables. These results contrast with those of previous studies, and with the assumed pronounced exophilic behaviour of C. imicola, and raise important questions about the vector activity of this species in the study area and its implications for the epidemiology of BT and/or AHS.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Calvete
- Unidad de Sanidad y Producción Animal, Centro de Investigación y Tecnología Agroalimentaria (CITA), Gobierno de Aragón, Zaragoza, Spain.
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Burchard GD, Caumes E, Connor BA, Freedman DO, Jelinek T, Jong EC, von Sonnenburg F, Steffen R, Tsai TF, Wilder-Smith A, Zuckerman J. Expert opinion on vaccination of travelers against Japanese encephalitis. J Travel Med 2009; 16:204-16. [PMID: 19538583 DOI: 10.1111/j.1708-8305.2009.00330.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Rajavel AR, Natarajan R. Mosquitoes of the mangrove forests of India: part 7--an overview. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MOSQUITO CONTROL ASSOCIATION 2008; 24:478-488. [PMID: 19181053 DOI: 10.2987/08-5762.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Parts 1 to 6 of this series on the mosquitoes of the mangrove forests of India dealt with the mosquito species recorded in the mangroves of Bhitarkanika, Sundarbans, Andaman and Nicobar islands, Coringa, Chorao and Vikhroli, and Kundapur and Kannur. This concluding part provides an overview of the distribution of the mosquito species in different mangrove forests, including the mangroves of Muthupet in Tamilnadu and the mangroves of Gulf of Kutch and Gulf of Kambhat in Gujarat, species collected as larvae, species in relation to the salinity of the larval habitats, species landing on humans for feeding in the mangroves, and the impact of habitat degradation on species diversity.
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Affiliation(s)
- A R Rajavel
- Division of Vector Biology and Control, Vector Control Research Centre (ICMR), Pondicherry 605 006, India
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Kanojia PC, Jamgaonkar AV. Mosquito records from a hot and dry climatic area experiencing frequent outbreaks of Japanese encephalitis, Bellary district, Karnataka, India. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MOSQUITO CONTROL ASSOCIATION 2008; 24:6-10. [PMID: 18437807 DOI: 10.2987/5561.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Mosquito species occurring in Bellary district, Karnataka, India were surveyed for Japanese encephalitis (JE) and West Nile virus (WNV) from 2001 to 2003. A total of 37 mosquito species in 6 genera were recovered from larval and adult habitats. Aedes, Anopheles and Culex were represented by 11 species each, Mansonia by 2 species, and Armigeres and Lutzia by a single species. A total of 68,506 mosquitoes belonging to 20 species were collected at dusk. Most (74.6%) were Cx. tritaeniorhynchus and occurred in 2 peaks of abundance in February (304 per man hour density [PMHD]) and October (465 PMHD). The mosquito fauna of Bellary district is not diverse, possibly because of the hot and dry climatic conditions in the area.
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Affiliation(s)
- P C Kanojia
- National Institute of Virology, Department of Medical Entomology and Zoology (Japanese Encephalitis Group), New Campus, 130/1, Sus Road, Pashan, Pune 411021, India
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Gupta N, Chatterjee K, Karmakar S, Jain SK, Venkatesh S, Lal S. Bellary, India achieves negligible case fatality due to Japanese encephalitis despite no vaccination: an outbreak investigation in 2004. Indian J Pediatr 2008; 75:31-7. [PMID: 18245932 DOI: 10.1007/s12098-008-0003-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To confirm the existence of the outbreak of suspected Japanese encephalitis, identify the source, to understand the circumstances due to which the outbreak was taking place and to suggest measures for its control. METHODS The team visited Bellary from 4th to 10th Sept, 2004. The team interviewed the key persons and analyzed the records at District Surveillance Unit and Entomological Surveillance Unit and case records of suspected JE cases admitted in Encephalitis ward in Vijay Nagar Institute of Medical Sciences (VIMS). Eco-entomological survey was done in houses and surroundings of 3 randomly selected cases of Encephalitis in rural and urban areas of District Bellary. Their family members and neighbors were also asked for the awareness and presence of disease. Data was analyzed for epidemiological and clinical profiles. RESULTS The suspected JE cases were being reported from end of June 2004. The cases were sporadic and out of 34 cases reported to VIMS (till 10th of September), 32 were from Bellary district and 2 were from adjoining Andhra Pradesh. Among these 32, 22 were from Bellary Taluk, which in turn were mainly concentrated (10 were reported) in urban Bellary. The case fatality rate was zero as no death was reported. Entomological surveillance (done by District Surveillance Unit) revealed a high outdoor presence of Culex tritaeniorhynchus as well as an indoor rising density of this mosquito from 2 per man hour catch in January to 22 in the month of August in the affected villages. On the contrary, the investigations on 7th and 8th September revealed high densities of An.subpictus and An. peditaenatus and nil of Culex species in the urban areas. Amplifier host of pigs and water birds were occasionally sighted in the area. CONCLUSION A good community awareness of encephalitis, a prompt referral system and a good supportive treatment for the patients and a good surveillance system and response were observed. Very close proximity with amplifying hosts of pigs was avoided by the community, though piggeries were still not very far away (1-3 Km). These may explain the reduction in cases, deaths and disabilities due to this disease in this district over the years. Possibilities of mutant strain which is less virulent and/or a better immune status of at risk population may also need to be explored. The impact of the mass vaccination with SA 14-14-2, imported from China in Bellary during July, 2006 remains to be evaluated. This will further decrease the case load.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neeru Gupta
- Division of Reproductive Health & Nutrition, Indian Council of Medical Research, New Delhi, India.
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Caramello P, Canta F, Balbiano R, Lipani F, Ariaudo S, De Agostini M, Calleri G, Boglione L, Di Caro A. A case of imported JE acquired during short travel in Vietnam. Are current recommendations about vaccination broader? J Travel Med 2007; 14:346-8. [PMID: 17883468 DOI: 10.1111/j.1708-8305.2007.00140.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Pietro Caramello
- Unit A of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, Amedeo di Savoia Hospital, Torino, Italy.
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Kuno G, Chang GJJ. Biological transmission of arboviruses: reexamination of and new insights into components, mechanisms, and unique traits as well as their evolutionary trends. Clin Microbiol Rev 2005; 18:608-37. [PMID: 16223950 PMCID: PMC1265912 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.18.4.608-637.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 192] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Among animal viruses, arboviruses are unique in that they depend on arthropod vectors for transmission. Field research and laboratory investigations related to the three components of this unique mode of transmission, virus, vector, and vertebrate host, have produced an enormous amount of valuable information that may be found in numerous publications. However, despite many reviews on specific viruses, diseases, or interests, a systematic approach to organizing the available information on all facets of biological transmission and then to interpret it in the context of the evolutionary process has not been attempted before. Such an attempt in this review clearly demonstrates tremendous progress made worldwide to characterize the viruses, to comprehend disease transmission and pathogenesis, and to understand the biology of vectors and their role in transmission. The rapid progress in molecular biologic techniques also helped resolve many virologic puzzles and yielded highly valuable data hitherto unavailable, such as characterization of virus receptors, the genetic basis of vertebrate resistance to viral infection, and phylogenetic evidence of the history of host range shifts in arboviruses. However, glaring gaps in knowledge of many critical subjects, such as the mechanism of viral persistence and the existence of vertebrate reservoirs, are still evident. Furthermore, with the accumulated data, new questions were raised, such as evolutionary directions of virus virulence and of host range. Although many fundamental questions on the evolution of this unique mode of transmission remained unresolved in the absence of a fossil record, available observations for arboviruses and the information derived from studies in other fields of the biological sciences suggested convergent evolution as a plausible process. Overall, discussion of the diverse range of theories proposed and observations made by many investigators was found to be highly valuable for sorting out the possible mechanism(s) of the emergence of arboviral diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Goro Kuno
- Division of Vector-Borne Infectious Diseases, National Center for Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA.
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