Impact of five commercial baits containing chitin synthesis inhibitors on the protist community in Reticulitermes flavipes (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae)

Subterranean Termite (Coptotermes gestroi (Blattodea: Rhinotermitidae)) Colony Elimination Through Exposure to a Novaluron CSI Bait Formulation in Laboratory

The development of baits for subterranean termite control over the past 25 yr has provided cost-effective alternatives to liquid termiticide treatments. Current bait products use one of the few available benzoylurea chitin synthesis inhibitors (CSIs) labeled for subterranean termites. These insecticides are used because of their nonrepellency, their slow-acting mode of action, and their dose-independent lethal time. Although many studies have provided ample evidence of the efficacy of CSI baits for subterranean termite colony elimination, most have focused on hexaflumuron and noviflumuron. However, bait products using alternative CSIs have not received the same level of scrutiny, limiting the amount of evidence proving their efficacy. One such compound is novaluron, the active ingredient currently used in the Trelona ATBS-Advance Termite Baiting System bait product. The current study independently tested the efficacy of this commercially available bait formulation against whole colonies of Coptotermes gestroi (Wamann) (~63,910 workers) in the laboratory, using an extended experimental setup to simulate a 15-m foraging distance from the central part of the nest to the bait, while having access to alternative food sources. Treated colonies progressively ceased to feed on wood items within 45 d after being provided access to the novaluron bait formulation, with a subsequent progressive collapse of the population, leading to colony elimination by 91 d. This study therefore confirms the efficacy of novaluron baits against subterranean termites, and currently remains one of the few CSIs that can be applied for the successful control of Coptotermes infestations.

Effects of White Mulberry (Morus alba) Heartwood Extract Against Reticulitermes flavipes (Blattodea: Rhinotermitidae)

Heartwood extract from white mulberry (Morus alba L.) (Rosales: Moraceae) were investigated for antitermitic activity against Reticulitermes flavipes (Kollar) (Blattodea: Rhinotermitidae) in laboratory experiments. An ethanol:toluene (2:1) solvent system was used to remove extract from heartwood shavings. A concentration-dependent feeding response and mortality were observed for termites exposed to a concentration series range of 1.25 to 10 mg/ml of extract based on their dry weight. Results showed that maximum termite mortality occurred at 10 mg/ml. Based on the concentration series data, LC50 was calculated at 1.71 mg/ml. In filter paper feeding and repellency assays, extract significantly decreased the total number of gut protozoa compared with untreated and solvent controls. After feeding on filter paper treated at 10 mg/ml for 2 wk, protozoan populations were reduced by >55%. In choice and no-choice tests with mulberry heartwood, greater wood loss from termite feeding was found on solvent extracted blocks compared with nonextracted. Complete (100%) mortality was observed after feeding on nonextracted blocks compared with extracted blocks. Heartwood extract from white mulberry imparted resistance to vacuum pressure treated, nondurable southern pine and cottonwood. At every concentration tested, 100% mortality was observed after feeding on extract-treated southern pine or cottonwood. GC-MS analysis of extract showed high levels of the phenol compound, resorcinol. Results indicated that heartwood extract from white mulberry have antitermitic properties and might be potentially valuable in the development of environmentally benign termiticides.

Evaluation of Insect Growth Regulators Against Field-Collected Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus (Diptera: Culicidae) from Malaysia

Susceptibility status of Aedes aegypti (L.) and Aedes albopictus Skuse larvae obtained from 12 states in Malaysia were evaluated against five insect growth regulators (IGRs), namely, pyriproxyfen, methoprene, diflubenzuron, cyromazine, and novaluron under laboratory conditions. Field populations of Ae. aegypti exhibited moderate resistance toward methoprene and low resistance toward pyriproxyfen, with resistance ratios of 12.7 and 1.4, respectively, but susceptibility to diflubenzuron, cyromazine, and novaluron. On the other hand, field populations of Ae. albopictus exhibited low resistance against diflubenzuron and novaluron, with resistance ratio of 2.1 and 1.0, respectively, but susceptibility to other tested IGRs. Our study concluded that the tested IGRs provide promising results and can be used to control field population of Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus, especially cyromazine. The use of IGR should be considered as an alternative when larvae develop resistance to conventional insecticides.

Efficacy of insect growth regulators as grain protectants against two stored-product pests in wheat and maize

Insect growth regulators (IGRs) (two juvenile hormone analogues [fenoxycarb and pyriproxifen], four chitin synthesis inhibitors [diflubenzuron, flufenoxuron, lufenuron, and triflumuron], one ecdysteroid agonist [methoxyfenozide], and one combination of chitin synthesis inhibitors and juvenile hormone analogues [lufenuron plus fenoxycarb]) were tested in the laboratory against adults of Prostephanus truncatus in maize and against adults of Rhyzopertha dominica in wheat. The tested IGRs were applied in maize at three doses (1, 5, and 10 ppm) and assessed at three temperature levels (20, 25, and 30°C) in the case of P. truncatus, while in the case of R. dominica the above doses were assessed only at 25°C in wheat. In addition to progeny production, mortality of the treated adults after 14 days of exposure in the IGR-treated commodities was assessed. All IGRs were very effective (>88.5% suppression of progeny) against the tested species at doses of $ 5 ppm, while diflubenzuron at 25°C in the case of P. truncatus or lufenuron and pyriproxyfen in the case of R. dominica completely suppressed (100%) progeny production when they were applied at 1 ppm. At all tested doses, the highest values of R. dominica parental mortality were observed in wheat treated with lufenuron plus fenoxycarb. Temperature at the levels examined in the present study did not appear to affect the overall performance in a great extent of the tested IGRs in terms of adult mortality or suppression of progeny production against P. truncatus in treated maize. The tested IGRs may be considered viable grain protectants and therefore as potential components in stored-product integrated pest management.

Insecticides that Interfere with Insect Growth and Development

The insecticides discussed in this chapter target structures and physiological systems unique to insects and similar creatures and are consequently of low mammalian toxicity. This is despite one group, the ecdysone agonists, targeting an insect steroid hormonal system. Curiously, a remarkably large number of these compounds, notwithstanding their structural diversity, have adverse effects on the mammalian haematological system. As these compounds target insect development, they are not ‘knock-down’ insecticides and are not very effective against established adult insect infestation.

Recent developments in the taxonomic affiliation and phylogenetic positioning of fungi: impact in applied microbiology and environmental biotechnology

The goal of modern taxonomy is to understand the relationships of living organisms in terms of evolutionary descent. Thereby, the relationships between living organisms are understood in terms of nested clades--every time a speciation event takes place, two new clades are produced. Life comprises three domains of living organisms, these are the Bacteria, the Archaea and the Eukaryota. Within the eukaryotic domain, the fungi form a monophyletic group of the eukaryotic crown group and are thus high up in the evolutionary hierarchy of life. Fungus-like organisms possess certain morphological features of fungi, such as the hyphal organization of the Oomycota or the spores and reproductive structures inside a fructification of plasmodiophorids (Plasmodiophoromycota) and slime moulds (Mycetozoa). The first group are algae which secondarily lost their plastids during evolution and contain cellulose in their cell walls. Both osmotrophic phyla, the Oomycota and the Plasmidiophoromycota belong to the Chromista and Rhizaria, respectively, whereas the last group, the cellular and plasmodial slime moulds (Mycetozoa) are phagotrophic amoeboid protists belonging to the Amoebozoa. These fungus-like organisms are not considered further in this review. The Fungi sensu stricto comprise a heterogenous, often inconspicuous group of microorganisms which (1) are primarily heterotrophic with an (2) osmotrophic style of nutrition containing (3) chitin and its derivatives in the cell wall. This review discusses species concepts and current strategies in fungal taxonomy, phylogenetic affiliations of miscellaneous fungus-like groups like the microsporidia, perspectives of fungal nomenclature, and their impact on natural product research.