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Yusefinejad S, Gharibi D, Khosravi M, Mayahi M, Shapouri MRSA. Isolation, identification, antibiotic resistance profile and molecular analysis of Ornithobacterium rhinotracheal isolates from turkeys. Vet Med Sci 2024; 10:e1490. [PMID: 38837675 DOI: 10.1002/vms3.1490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2023] [Revised: 04/12/2024] [Accepted: 05/17/2024] [Indexed: 06/07/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ornithobacterium rhinotracheal (ORT) infects numerous birds, particularly chickens and turkeys. ORT is an emerging bacterial pathogen of global concern in the poultry industry. As ORT is rapidly spreading throughout commercial poultry, it requires intensive studies of its epidemiology, diagnostic procedures, molecular typing, virulence genes and antimicrobial resistance. OBJECTIVES The present study was conducted in isolation and identification of ORT from slaughtered turkeys. METHODS Cleft palate swabs of 200 were collected from slaughtered turkeys and cultured on blood agar. ORT was characterized using biochemical tests and PCR targeting the ORT 16S rRNA gene. Virulence genes of isolates were determined targeting adenylate kinase (adk), copA and virulence-associated protein D (vapD) genes. Additionally, diversity of ORT isolates was performed by enterobacterial repetitive intergenic consensus (ERIC) and RAPD PCR. Disk diffusion was used to determine the antibiotic sensitivity of the isolates. RESULTS ORT was identified in 23 (11.5%) samples using both the biochemical tests and PCR. The result of detecting virulence genes showed that all the isolates (23: 100%) had the adk gene, whereas two (8.7%) isolates had the copA gene, and seven (30.43%) isolates had the vapD gene. Molecular typing of isolates revealed 21 different patterns by RAPD PCR assay using M13 primer and 20 distinct patterns by ERIC PCR test. Both ERIC and RAPD PCR were distinctive methods for investigating the genetic diversity of ORT isolates. The antibiotic resistance test showed that 18 (78.26%) isolates were resistant to gentamicin, amikacin, cefazolin, streptomycin and penicillin. All isolates (100%) were resistant to cloxacillin and fosfomycin. CONCLUSIONS This study showed the prevalence of ORT in turkey and high resistance of this bacterium to many common veterinary antibiotics. Moreover, both ERIC and RAPD PCR are distinctive methods for investigating the genetic diversity of ORT isolates. These data may help monitor antibiotic resistance and typing of ORT in epidemiological studies and serve as the foundation for designing region-specific vaccines for future use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sedigheh Yusefinejad
- Department of Pathobiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz, Ahvaz, Iran
| | - Darioush Gharibi
- Department of Pathobiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz, Ahvaz, Iran
| | - Mohammad Khosravi
- Department of Pathobiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz, Ahvaz, Iran
| | - Mansour Mayahi
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz, Ahvaz, Iran
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Development and Validation of a New TaqMan Real-Time PCR for the Detection of Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10020341. [PMID: 35208796 PMCID: PMC8875355 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10020341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2021] [Revised: 01/17/2022] [Accepted: 01/29/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale (ORT) has been associated with poultry respiratory disease worldwide. The organism is fastidious and isolation is challenging. One TaqMan real-time PCR (qPCR) assay has been developed for the detection of ORT. However, during validating the ORT qPCR, the assay performance was suboptimal. During the in silico evaluation, deviations from the basic parameters for primers and probes designs (e.g., presence of stable undesirable primer-dimers) were observed. The suboptimal design led to low efficiency and low sensitivity of the assay. Initially, modification on the probe was carried out to improve the performance of the assay. However, the assay’s performance (efficiency and sensitivity) was still suboptimal. In this manuscript, we describe the development of a new qPCR assay and the comparison of its performance with the currently available assay. A highly efficient, sensitive, and specific qPCR assay was developed with approximately 1000-folds reduction in the limit of detection (from 3 × 106 plasmid DNA copies/mL to 1 × 103 plasmid DNA copies/mL). Additionally, the efficiency of the new assay (E = 98.70%) was significantly better than the current assay (E = 73.18%). The newly developed assay is an improved diagnostic tool for the sensitive and efficient diagnosis of ORT from clinical samples.
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El-Ghany WAA. An updated comprehensive review on ornithobacteriosis: A worldwide emerging avian respiratory disease. Open Vet J 2021; 11:555-568. [PMID: 35070850 PMCID: PMC8770186 DOI: 10.5455/ovj.2021.v11.i4.5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2021] [Accepted: 09/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Ornithobacteriosis is an important emerging respiratory disease of domestic and wild birds caused by Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale (ORT) bacterium. The disease has been detected in some countries since 1980, which rapidly spread worldwide later on. Ornithobacteriosis can transmit either horizontally or even vertically. Infection with ORT is mainly characterized by respiratory distress, poor performance, acute death, and a drop in egg production. However, the most characteristic necropsy lesions of dead turkeys and chickens are yoghurt like airsacculitis and pneumonia, usually unilateral. Unfortunately, infection with ORT was misdiagnosed in most of the poultry flocks due to similarity with other respiratory pathogens and the lack of the ideal protocols for diagnosis. Recently, some molecular and serological techniques have been used to detect the infection. Treatment of ORT with antibiotics is very difficult and variable as a result of acquired resistance. Many vaccines have been developed to counteract such infection in broiler, layers, and breeder chicken and turkey flocks. Inactivated, live, and sub-unit vaccines have been used with satisfactory results. Thus, this review paper aimed to address ornithobacteriosis, emphasizing the distribution, transmission, clinical picture, diagnosis, and disease control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wafaa A Abd El-Ghany
- Poultry Diseases Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt
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Ellakany HF, Elbestawy AR, Abd-Elhamid HS, Gado AR, Nassar AA, Abdel-Latif MA, Ghanima IIA, Abd El-Hack ME, Swelum AA, Saadeldin IM, Ba-Awadh HA, Alowaimer AN. Effect of experimental Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale infection along with live infectious bronchitis vaccination in broiler chickens. Poult Sci 2019; 98:105-111. [PMID: 30690611 PMCID: PMC7107161 DOI: 10.3382/ps/pey324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2018] [Accepted: 06/28/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale (ORT), a bacterium causing respiratory tract infection, has led to a significant problem in the intensive poultry production in Egypt. Polymerase chain reaction-amplified 784-bp specific ORT DNA fragments were found in 7 ORT isolates from lungs, air sacs, and tracheas of commercial broilers or layers in Egypt in 2015. The objective of this study was to investigate the role of the live variant IBV 4/91 with ORT infection. A total of 120 14-d-old broiler chickens (Cobb 500) were equally divided into 4 groups for experimental infection in a complete randomized design. Group 1 was infected with ORT strain and live infectious bronchitis vaccine (IBV 4/91) simultaneously; group 2 was infected with the bacterial strain alone; group 3 was vaccinated only with IBV 4/91, and group 4 was the non-vaccinated and non-infected control group. The respiratory signs, post-mortem lesions (tracheitis and pneumonia) and histopathological findings of lungs, trachea, and air sacs in the experimentally infected broiler chickens appeared to be more prominent in the chickens of group 1 than group 2. With respect to body weight, weight gain, feed conversion rate, and Ornithobacterium re-isolation, there was a difference (P ≤ 0.05) among the chickens of group 1 and the other groups. This reveals that the use of live infectious bronchitic vaccines, which is a common practice in the local Egyptian field of production, may concomitantly increase the pathogenicity of ORT in broiler chickens.
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Affiliation(s)
- H F Ellakany
- Department of Poultry and Fish Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Damanhour University, Elgomhoria st. Damanhour, Elbehira 22511, Egypt
| | - A R Elbestawy
- Department of Poultry and Fish Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Damanhour University, Elgomhoria st. Damanhour, Elbehira 22511, Egypt
| | - H S Abd-Elhamid
- Department of Poultry and Fish Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Damanhour University, Elgomhoria st. Damanhour, Elbehira 22511, Egypt
| | - A R Gado
- Department of Poultry and Fish Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Damanhour University, Elgomhoria st. Damanhour, Elbehira 22511, Egypt
| | - A A Nassar
- Department of Poultry and Fish Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Damanhour University, Elgomhoria st. Damanhour, Elbehira 22511, Egypt
| | - M A Abdel-Latif
- Department of Nutrition and Veterinary Clinical Nutrition, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Damanhour University, Elgomhoria st. Damanhour, Elbehira 22511, Egypt
| | - I I Abo Ghanima
- Department of Animal Physiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Damanhour University, Elgomhoria st. Damanhour, Elbehira 22511, Egypt
| | - M E Abd El-Hack
- Department of Poultry, Faculty of Agriculture, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44511, Egypt
| | - A A Swelum
- Department of Animal Production, College of Food and Agriculture Sciences, King Saud University, P.O. Box 2460, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia.,Department of Theriogenology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44511, Egypt
| | - I M Saadeldin
- Department of Animal Production, College of Food and Agriculture Sciences, King Saud University, P.O. Box 2460, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia.,Department of Physiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44511, Egypt
| | - H A Ba-Awadh
- Department of Animal Production, College of Food and Agriculture Sciences, King Saud University, P.O. Box 2460, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
| | - A N Alowaimer
- Department of Animal Production, College of Food and Agriculture Sciences, King Saud University, P.O. Box 2460, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
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De la Rosa-Ramos MA, Muñoz-Solís K, Palma-Zepeda M, Gutierrez-Castillo AC, López Villegas EO, Guerra-Infante FM, Castro-Escarpulli G. Adherence of Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale to chicken embryo lung cells as a pathogenic mechanism. Avian Pathol 2017; 47:172-178. [PMID: 29016186 DOI: 10.1080/03079457.2017.1390208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale is a bacterium that causes respiratory disease in birds and it has been isolated in countries with a large poultry production, including Mexico. The pathogenicity mechanisms of this bacterium have not been completely elucidated yet. The capacity of the bacterium to adhere to epithelial cells of chicken in vitro has been evidenced, and since this bacterium has been isolated from the lungs and air sacs of several avian species, the aim of this study was to determine if this bacterium can adhere to chicken lung cells. We used five O. rhinotracheale reference serovars (A-E) that were in contact with primary lung cells cultured from a 19-day-old chicken embryo. O. rhinotracheale adherence was evaluated through optical and transmission electron microscopies. The results revealed that O. rhinotracheale is capable of adhering to chicken embryo lung cells within 3 h of incubation with a diffuse adherence pattern. The adherence percentages of the chicken embryo lung cells were 51-96% according to the serovar of the bacterium. Relative adherence was from 4 to 8 bacteria per cell. Transmission electron microscope data revealed intracellular bacteria inside a vacuole in less than 3 h of incubation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miguel A De la Rosa-Ramos
- a Laboratorio de Microbiología Veterinaria, Departamento de Microbiología de la Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas (ENCB), Instituto Politécnico Nacional , Mexico City , Mexico.,b Laboratorio de Bacteriología Médica, Departamento de Microbiología de la Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas (ENCB), Instituto Politécnico Nacional , Mexico City , Mexico
| | - Karina Muñoz-Solís
- a Laboratorio de Microbiología Veterinaria, Departamento de Microbiología de la Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas (ENCB), Instituto Politécnico Nacional , Mexico City , Mexico
| | - Mario Palma-Zepeda
- c Laboratorio de Virología, Departamento de Microbiología e Inmunología, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia (FMVZ) , Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM) , Mexico City , Mexico
| | - Adriana C Gutierrez-Castillo
- d Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia (FMVZ) , Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México (UAEMex) , Toluca , Mexico
| | - Edgar O López Villegas
- e Central de Microscopia, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas (ENCB) , Instituto Politécnico Nacional (IPN) , Mexico City , Mexico
| | - Fernando M Guerra-Infante
- a Laboratorio de Microbiología Veterinaria, Departamento de Microbiología de la Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas (ENCB), Instituto Politécnico Nacional , Mexico City , Mexico.,f Laboratorio de Bioinmunología Molecular del Instituto Nacional de Perinatología (INPerIER) , Mexico City , Mexico
| | - Graciela Castro-Escarpulli
- b Laboratorio de Bacteriología Médica, Departamento de Microbiología de la Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas (ENCB), Instituto Politécnico Nacional , Mexico City , Mexico
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Szabó R, Wehmann E, Makrai L, Nemes C, Gyuris É, Thuma Á, Magyar T. Characterization of Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale field isolates from Hungary. Avian Pathol 2017; 46:506-514. [PMID: 28421811 DOI: 10.1080/03079457.2017.1321104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale is a widely distributed rod-shaped Gram-negative bacterium that infects several avian species including chickens and turkeys. It is associated with respiratory signs, growth retardation, mortality, and reduced egg production, thus causing severe economic losses to the poultry industries. In this study, 37 field isolates of O. rhinotracheale, collected from various locations in Hungary between 1997 and 2015, were identified and characterized by the analysis of partial 16S rRNA gene sequences, enterobacterial repetitive intergenic consensus (ERIC)-PCR, and random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) PCR assays with the OPG11, OPH19, and M13 primers. Most of the field isolates were serotype A, one was serotype B, and four were serotype D. One isolate could not be typed with antisera against serotypes A-E. In a phylogenetic analysis of the 16S rRNA sequences, the isolates formed two clusters. Thirteen distinct patterns were identified with ERIC-PCR, and the RAPD assay with the M13 primer assigned the isolates to 10 different patterns. The other two RAPD assays were unsuitable for distinguishing and grouping the isolates. Neither ERIC type nor RAPD pattern correlated with the place or year of isolation. However, the strains isolated from chickens were more heterogeneous on ERIC-PCR than the isolates recovered from turkeys. In this study, ERIC-PCR was the most discriminatory method for investigating the genetic diversity of O. rhinotracheale isolates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Réka Szabó
- a Institute for Veterinary Medical Research, Centre for Agricultural Research, Hungarian Academy of Sciences , Budapest , Hungary
| | - Enikő Wehmann
- a Institute for Veterinary Medical Research, Centre for Agricultural Research, Hungarian Academy of Sciences , Budapest , Hungary
| | - László Makrai
- b Department of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases , University of Veterinary Medicine , Budapest , Hungary
| | - Csaba Nemes
- c Division of Pathology of Kaposvár Central Agricultural Office , Veterinary Diagnostic Directorate, National Food Chain Safety Office , Kaposvár , Hungary
| | - Éva Gyuris
- d Veterinary Diagnostic Directorate , National Food Chain Safety Office , Budapest , Hungary
| | - Ákos Thuma
- d Veterinary Diagnostic Directorate , National Food Chain Safety Office , Budapest , Hungary
| | - Tibor Magyar
- a Institute for Veterinary Medical Research, Centre for Agricultural Research, Hungarian Academy of Sciences , Budapest , Hungary
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Morales-Erasto V, Falconi-Agapito F, Luna-Galaz GA, Saravia LE, Montalvan-Avalos A, Soriano-Vargas E E, Fernández-Díaz M. Coinfection of Avibacterium paragallinarum and Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale in Chickens from Peru. Avian Dis 2016; 60:75-8. [PMID: 26953948 DOI: 10.1637/11265-082015-resnote.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
The coinfection of Avibacterium paragallinarum and Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale in two outbreaks of infectious coryza from Peru is reported. The diagnosis was confirmed by bacteriologic isolation, PCR testing, and sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene. The susceptibility of the isolates to 12 antimicrobial agents was tested by a disk diffusion method. The isolates were susceptible to amoxicillin/clavulanic acid and florfenicol and were resistant to oxacillin and sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim. The coinfection of Av. paragallinarum and O. rhinotracheale and the severity of clinical signs were evaluated by experimental infection of specific-pathogen-free chickens. The group inoculated with O. rhinotracheale alone presented minimal clinical signs in 3 of 10 chickens. However, the groups inoculated with both Av. paragallinarum and O. rhinotracheale induced the most-severe clinical signs compared with the group inoculated with Av. paragallinarum alone. In conclusion, coinfections with Av. paragallinarum and O. rhinotracheale may occur, and these outbreaks could be more severe than single infections. Hence, the prevention, control, and diagnosis of Av. paragallinarum with O. rhinotracheale are important in outbreaks of infectious coryza.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Morales-Erasto
- A Centro de Investigación y Estudios Avanzados en Salud Animal, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México, Toluca, 50200, México.,D Corresponding author. CIESA, FMVZ, UAEM, Carretera Panamericana Toluca-Atlacomulco km 15.5, Toluca 50200, México
| | - F Falconi-Agapito
- B FARVET S.A.C., Carretera Panamericana Sur Km 198.5, Chincha Alta, Ica, Perú
| | - G A Luna-Galaz
- A Centro de Investigación y Estudios Avanzados en Salud Animal, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México, Toluca, 50200, México
| | - L E Saravia
- B FARVET S.A.C., Carretera Panamericana Sur Km 198.5, Chincha Alta, Ica, Perú
| | - A Montalvan-Avalos
- B FARVET S.A.C., Carretera Panamericana Sur Km 198.5, Chincha Alta, Ica, Perú
| | - E Soriano-Vargas E
- A Centro de Investigación y Estudios Avanzados en Salud Animal, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México, Toluca, 50200, México
| | - M Fernández-Díaz
- B FARVET S.A.C., Carretera Panamericana Sur Km 198.5, Chincha Alta, Ica, Perú
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Abdelwhab EM, Lüschow D, Hafeza HM. Development of real-time polymerase chain reaction assay for detection of Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale in poultry. Avian Dis 2013; 57:663-6. [PMID: 24283134 DOI: 10.1637/10517-022213-resnoter] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale (ORT) is an emerging bacterium causing severe economic losses in poultry mostly due to respiratory and locomotory disturbances. Due to the fastidious nature of the organism, ORT is often overgrown by faster-growing commensal and pathogenic bacteria. In this study we developed a real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) assay for rapid and sensitive detection of ORT in samples collected from chickens and turkeys. The qPCR assay developed was able to detect 17 reference strains of ORT (serotypes A to Q) tested in this study, and no false-positive results were obtained from other organisms associated with respiratory tract infections. The qPCR assay was 100 times more sensitive than the modified conventional PCR. Using tenfold serial dilutions of the recombinant plasmid DNA containing the target gene fragment, the detection limit of the qPCR was estimated to be > or = 100 plasmid copies per reaction. Out of 42 examined poultry flocks, 26 cases were tested positive by both assays. The qPCR assay reduces turnaround time to about 2 hr, two times faster than the modified conventional PCR.
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Affiliation(s)
- E M Abdelwhab
- Institute of Poultry Diseases, Free Berlin University, Königsweg 63 Berlin 14163, Germany
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De Haro-Cruz MJ, Ixta-Avila L, Guerra-Infante FM. Adherence of five serovars of Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale to chicken tracheal epithelial cells. Br Poult Sci 2013; 54:425-9. [PMID: 23826883 DOI: 10.1080/00071668.2013.800942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
1. Interaction between bacteria and host tissue is important, both for primary adhesion and tissue-specific colonisation, as well as for pathogen invasion for different host tissues. 2. Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale is a bacterium associated with respiratory tract infections in poultry. The mechanisms by which O. rhinotracheale causes infection are not known. To date, at least 18 serovars of this bacterium, with or without the ability to agglutinate erythrocytes of chicken and other species, have been identified. 3. The purpose of this work was to evaluate the ability of five references strains, belonging to serovars A, B, C, D and E, to adhere to a culture of primary chicken tracheal cells. 4. Serovars A and B adhered to less than 20% of tracheal cells with no specific adherence pattern. Serovars C, D and E gave adherence values greater than 70%. Serovars C and E showed a diffuse adherence pattern, while serovar D had an aggregated adherence pattern. 5. The adherence ability and pattern could be associated with different pathogenicity mechanisms in the various serovars but more studies are needed to understand the reasons for these differences.
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Affiliation(s)
- M J De Haro-Cruz
- Department of Microbiology of the National School of Biological Sciences -IPN , Prolongación de Carpio y Plan de Ayala s/n. Col. Casco de Santo Tomas, C.P. 11340, Mexico City.
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Moreno B, Chacón G, Villa A, Fernández A, Vela AI, Fernández-Garayzábal JF, Ferré S, Gracia E. Nervous signs associated with otitis and cranial osteomyelitis and withOrnithobacterium rhinotrachealeinfection in red-legged partridges (Alectoris rufa). Avian Pathol 2009; 38:341-7. [DOI: 10.1080/03079450903183686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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