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Lu Q, Cheng C, Xiao L, Li J, Li X, Zhao X, Lu Z, Zhao J, Yao M. Food webs reveal coexistence mechanisms and community organization in carnivores. Curr Biol 2023; 33:647-659.e5. [PMID: 36669497 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2022.12.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2022] [Revised: 11/11/2022] [Accepted: 12/20/2022] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Globally, massive carnivore guild extirpations have led to trophic downgrading and compromised ecosystem services. However, the complexity of multi-carnivore food webs complicates accurate identification of species interactions and community organization. Here, we used fecal DNA metabarcoding to investigate three communities that together encompass eight large- and meso-carnivore species and their 44 prey taxa of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (QTP), one of the last places on Earth that still harbors intact carnivore assemblages. Quantitative food-web analyses revealed pronounced interspecific variations in the carnivores' prey compositions and dietary partitioning both between and within guilds. Additionally, body masses of the carnivores and their prey exhibited consistent hump-shaped correlations across communities. Overall, differences in prey diversity, size category, and proportional utilization among the carnivore species result in trophic niche segregation that likely promotes carnivore coexistence in the harsh QTP environment. Network structure analyses detected significant modularity in all food webs but nestedness in only one. Furthermore, network characterization identified pikas (Ochotona spp.), bharal (Pseudois nayaur), and domestic yak (Bos grunniens) as potential keystone prey across the areas. Our results paint a holistic and detailed picture of the QTP carnivore assemblages' trophic networks and demonstrate that the combined use of the molecular dietary approach and network analysis can generate structural insights into carnivore coexistence and can identify functionally important species in complex communities. Such knowledge can help safeguard carnivore guild integrity and enhance community resilience to environmental perturbations in the sensitive QTP ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi Lu
- School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China; Institute of Ecology, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Chen Cheng
- Center for Nature and Society, School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China; Shan Shui Conservation Center, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Lingyun Xiao
- School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China; Department of Health and Environmental Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong Liverpool University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, China
| | - Juan Li
- School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China; Department of Health and Environmental Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong Liverpool University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, China
| | - Xueyang Li
- School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Xiang Zhao
- Shan Shui Conservation Center, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Zhi Lu
- School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China; Institute of Ecology, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China; Center for Nature and Society, School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China; Shan Shui Conservation Center, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Jindong Zhao
- School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China; Institute of Ecology, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Meng Yao
- School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China; Institute of Ecology, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China.
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2
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Qu J, Wang Y, Kong Y, Zhu H, Yu Y, Zhong L. Effect of chronic traffic noise on behavior and physiology of plateau pikas (Ochotona curzoniae). Front Ecol Evol 2022. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2022.1065966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
During the last two decades, numerous studies have shown the effects of traffic noise on animal vocal communication. However, studies on the influences of traffic noise on wildlife behavior and physiology are scarce. In the present study, we experimentally manipulated the traffic noise exposure of plateau pika, a native small mammal widely distributed in the alpine meadow of Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, to explore the effects of traffic noise exposure on its behavior and physiology. We showed that noise exposure increased the pika’s exploration and cortisol concentration (CORT) but decreased the resting metabolic rate (RMR). In addition, the relationships between RMR and exploration or CORT appeared under traffic noise treatment. This study suggests that traffic noise plays a large role in the behavior and physiology of plateau pikas and may have a long-term negative effect on the fitness of rodent populations. Generalizing these non-lethal effects to different taxa is crucial for the conservation and management of biodiversity in this increasingly noisy world.
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Surviving winter on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau: Pikas suppress energy demands and exploit yak feces to survive winter. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:2100707118. [PMID: 34282012 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2100707118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, with low precipitation, low oxygen partial pressure, and temperatures routinely dropping below -30 °C in winter, presents several physiological challenges to its fauna. Yet it is home to many endemic mammalian species, including the plateau pika (Ochotona curzoniae). How these small animals that are incapable of hibernation survive the winter is an enigma. Measurements of daily energy expenditure (DEE) using the doubly labeled water method show that pikas suppress their DEE during winter. At the same body weight, pikas in winter expend 29.7% less than in summer, despite ambient temperatures being approximately 25 °C lower. Combined with resting metabolic rates (RMRs), this gives them an exceptionally low metabolic scope in winter (DEE/RMRt = 1.60 ± 0.30; RMRt is resting metabolic rate at thermoneutrality). Using implanted body temperature loggers and filming in the wild, we show that this is achieved by reducing body temperature and physical activity. Thyroid hormone (T3 and T4) measurements indicate this metabolic suppression is probably mediated via the thyroid axis. Winter activity was lower at sites where domestic yak (Bos grunniens) densities were higher. Pikas supplement their food intake at these sites by eating yak feces, demonstrated by direct observation, identification of yak DNA in pika stomach contents, and greater convergence in the yak/pika microbiotas in winter. This interspecific coprophagy allows pikas to thrive where yak are abundant and partially explains why pika densities are higher where domestic yak, their supposed direct competitors for food, are more abundant.
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Paruchuri S, Smith AT, Fan Z, Dobson FS. Microhabitat use by plateau pikas: living on the edge. J Mammal 2019. [DOI: 10.1093/jmammal/gyz085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
AbstractMammals rely on habitat resources for survival and reproduction. We studied microhabitats used by plateau pikas (Ochotona curzoniae) of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. Microhabitat features used by pikas include sedge meadows that provide forage, burrows that provide safety from predators and cover for nests, degraded open-dirt patches, and edges between sedge meadow and open dirt patches that often have a “lip” between those microhabitats. We investigated the extent to which these edges might serve as a preferred pika microhabitat. GIS techniques were used to overlay individual pika home ranges, determined by focal and scan sampling, on a digitized map containing microhabitat features. Regions that contained multiple coinciding individual home ranges, referred to as overlap polygons, were categorized numerically based on the number of individual home ranges that overlapped each polygon. These overlap polygons were used as relative measures of pika activity. We tested the spatial relationship between pika activity and the microhabitat features of edges, burrows, and proportional area of sedge. There was a significant relationship between the number of pikas in an overlap polygon and the number of pikas in an adjacent polygon. This pattern was controlled statistically to test whether activity was influenced by the presence of potentially favorable microhabitat features. Most of the variation in number of pikas that overlapped a habitat polygon was associated with the relative amount of “edge microhabitat” between sedge meadow and degraded open dirt patches (Cohen’s effect size, f2 = 0.91). Neither burrow openings nor sedge had a strong influence on the number of pika home ranges that overlapped. The importance of microhabitat edges appeared high for plateau pikas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Spurthi Paruchuri
- Department of Biological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
| | - Andrew T Smith
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
| | - Zhaofei Fan
- School of Forestry and Wildlife Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
| | - F Stephen Dobson
- Department of Biological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
- Auburn University Museum of Natural History, Auburn, AL, USA
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5
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Smith AT, Badingqiuying, Wilson MC, Hogan BW. Functional-trait ecology of the plateau pika Ochotona curzoniae in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau ecosystem. Integr Zool 2019; 14:87-103. [PMID: 29316275 DOI: 10.1111/1749-4877.12300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Understanding a species' functional traits allows for a directed and productive perspective on the role a species plays in nature, and thus its relative importance to conservation planning. The functional-trait ecology of the plateau pika Ochotona curzoniae is examined to better understand the resilience and sustainability of the high alpine grasslands of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau (QTP). The key functional traits of plateau pikas are their abundance and behavior of digging extensive burrow systems. Plateau pikas have been poisoned over a significant part of their original geographic distribution across the QTP, allowing comparison of ecological communities with and without pikas. Nearly all mammalian and avian carnivores, most of which are obligate predators on pikas, have been lost in regions where pikas have been poisoned. Most endemic birds on the QTP nest in pika burrows; when pikas are poisoned, burrows collapse, and these birds are greatly reduced in number. Due to the biopedturbation resulting from their burrows, regional plant species richness is higher in areas with pikas than without. The presence of pika burrows allows higher rates of infiltration during heavy monsoon rains compared to poisoned areas, possibly mitigating runoff and the potential for serious downslope erosion and flooding. Thus, the functional traits of plateau pikas enhance native biodiversity and other important ecosystem functions; these traits are irreplaceable. As plateau pikas are not natural colonizers, active re-introduction programs are needed to restore pikas to areas from which they have been poisoned to restore the important functional ecological traits of pikas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew T Smith
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA
| | - Badingqiuying
- School of Geographical Sciences, Qinghai Normal University, Xining, China
| | - Maxwell C Wilson
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA
| | - Brigitte W Hogan
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA
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Solari KA, Hadly EA. Evolution for extreme living: variation in mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase genes correlated with elevation in pikas (genus Ochotona). Integr Zool 2018; 13:517-535. [PMID: 29851233 DOI: 10.1111/1749-4877.12332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The genus Ochotona (pikas) is a clade of cold-tolerant lagomorphs that includes many high-elevation species. Pikas offer a unique opportunity to study adaptations and potential limitations of an ecologically important mammal to high-elevation hypoxia. We analyzed the evolution of 3 mitochondrial genes encoding the catalytic core of cytochrome c oxidase (COX) in 10 pika species occupying elevations from sea level to 5000 m. COX is an enzyme highly reliant on oxygen and essential for cell function. One amino acid property, the equilibrium constant (ionization of COOH), was found to be under selection in the overall protein complex. We observed a strong relationship between the net value change in this property and the elevation each species occupies, with higher-elevation species having potentially more efficient proteins. We also found evidence of selection in low-elevation species for potentially less efficient COX, perhaps trading efficiency for heat production in the absence of hypoxia. Our results suggest that different pika species may have evolved elevation-specific COX proteins, specialization that may indicate limitations in their ability to shift their elevational ranges in response to future climate change.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Elizabeth A Hadly
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA.,Woods Institute for the Environment, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA.,Program for Conservation Genomics, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
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7
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Schnell IB, Bohmann K, Schultze SE, Richter SR, Murray DC, Sinding MHS, Bass D, Cadle JE, Campbell MJ, Dolch R, Edwards DP, Gray TNE, Hansen T, Hoa ANQ, Noer CL, Heise-Pavlov S, Sander Pedersen AF, Ramamonjisoa JC, Siddall ME, Tilker A, Traeholt C, Wilkinson N, Woodcock P, Yu DW, Bertelsen MF, Bunce M, Gilbert MTP. Debugging diversity - a pan-continental exploration of the potential of terrestrial blood-feeding leeches as a vertebrate monitoring tool. Mol Ecol Resour 2018; 18:1282-1298. [PMID: 29877042 DOI: 10.1111/1755-0998.12912] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2017] [Revised: 04/09/2018] [Accepted: 04/18/2018] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
The use of environmental DNA (eDNA) has become an applicable noninvasive tool with which to obtain information about biodiversity. A subdiscipline of eDNA is iDNA (invertebrate-derived DNA), where genetic material ingested by invertebrates is used to characterize the biodiversity of the species that served as hosts. While promising, these techniques are still in their infancy, as they have only been explored on limited numbers of samples from only a single or a few different locations. In this study, we investigate the suitability of iDNA extracted from more than 3,000 haematophagous terrestrial leeches as a tool for detecting a wide range of terrestrial vertebrates across five different geographical regions on three different continents. These regions cover almost the full geographical range of haematophagous terrestrial leeches, thus representing all parts of the world where this method might apply. We identify host taxa through metabarcoding coupled with high-throughput sequencing on Illumina and IonTorrent sequencing platforms to decrease economic costs and workload and thereby make the approach attractive for practitioners in conservation management. We identified hosts in four different taxonomic vertebrate classes: mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians, belonging to at least 42 different taxonomic families. We find that vertebrate blood ingested by haematophagous terrestrial leeches throughout their distribution is a viable source of DNA with which to examine a wide range of vertebrates. Thus, this study provides encouraging support for the potential of haematophagous terrestrial leeches as a tool for detecting and monitoring terrestrial vertebrate biodiversity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ida Baerholm Schnell
- Section for EvoGenomics, Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.,Center for Zoo and Wild Animal Health, Copenhagen Zoo, Frederiksberg, Denmark
| | - Kristine Bohmann
- Section for EvoGenomics, Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.,School of Biological Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK
| | - Sebastian E Schultze
- Section for EvoGenomics, Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Stine R Richter
- Section for EvoGenomics, Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Dáithí C Murray
- Trace and Environmental DNA Laboratory, Department of Environment and Agriculture, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Mikkel-Holger S Sinding
- Section for EvoGenomics, Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.,Greenland Institute of Natural Resources, Nuuk, Greenland
| | - David Bass
- Department of Life Sciences, The Natural History Museum, London, UK.,Cefas, Weymouth, Dorset, UK
| | - John E Cadle
- Centre ValBio, Ranomafana, Ifanadiana, Fianarantsoa, Madagascar
| | - Mason J Campbell
- Centre for Tropical Environmental and Sustainability Science (TESS) and College of Science and Engineering, James Cook University, Cairns, Queensland, Australia
| | | | - David P Edwards
- Centre for Tropical Environmental and Sustainability Science (TESS) and College of Science and Engineering, James Cook University, Cairns, Queensland, Australia.,Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | | | - Teis Hansen
- Section for EvoGenomics, Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | | | - Christina Lehmkuhl Noer
- Section for EvoGenomics, Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.,Center for Zoo and Wild Animal Health, Copenhagen Zoo, Frederiksberg, Denmark
| | - Sigrid Heise-Pavlov
- Centre for Rainforest Studies at the School for Field Studies, Yungaburra, Queensland, Australia
| | - Adam F Sander Pedersen
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Centre for Medical Parasitology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | | | - Mark E Siddall
- Division of Invertebrate Zoology, Sackler Institute of Comparative Genomics, American Museum of Natural History, New York, New York
| | - Andrew Tilker
- Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research, Berlin, Germany.,Global Wildlife Conservation, Austin, Texas
| | - Carl Traeholt
- Center for Zoo and Wild Animal Health, Copenhagen Zoo, Frederiksberg, Denmark
| | | | | | - Douglas W Yu
- School of Biological Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK.,State Key Laboratory of Genetic Resources and Evolution, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, China
| | | | - Michael Bunce
- Trace and Environmental DNA Laboratory, Department of Environment and Agriculture, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - M Thomas P Gilbert
- Section for EvoGenomics, Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.,Trace and Environmental DNA Laboratory, Department of Environment and Agriculture, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia, Australia.,NTNU University Museum, Trondheim, Norway
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8
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Lonsinger RC, Gese EM, Bailey LL, Waits LP. The roles of habitat and intraguild predation by coyotes on the spatial dynamics of kit foxes. Ecosphere 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.1749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Robert C. Lonsinger
- College of Natural Resources University of Wisconsin‐Stevens Point Stevens Point Wisconsin 54481 USA
- Department of Fish and Wildlife Sciences University of Idaho Moscow Idaho 83844 USA
| | - Eric M. Gese
- Department of Wildland Resources United States Department of Agriculture, Wildlife Services National Wildlife Research Center Utah State University Logan Utah 84322 USA
| | - Larissa L. Bailey
- Department of Fish, Wildlife, and Conservation Biology Colorado State University Fort Collins Colorado 80523 USA
| | - Lisette P. Waits
- Department of Fish and Wildlife Sciences University of Idaho Moscow Idaho 83844 USA
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9
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Holbrook JD, Arkle RS, Rachlow JL, Vierling KT, Pilliod DS, Wiest MM. Occupancy and abundance of predator and prey: implications of the fire‐cheatgrass cycle in sagebrush ecosystems. Ecosphere 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.1307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Joseph D. Holbrook
- Department of Fish and Wildlife SciencesUniversity of Idaho Moscow Idaho 83844‐1136 USA
| | - Robert S. Arkle
- U.S. Geological SurveyForest and Rangeland Ecosystem Science Center Boise Idaho 83706 USA
| | - Janet L. Rachlow
- Department of Fish and Wildlife SciencesUniversity of Idaho Moscow Idaho 83844‐1136 USA
| | - Kerri T. Vierling
- Department of Fish and Wildlife SciencesUniversity of Idaho Moscow Idaho 83844‐1136 USA
| | - David S. Pilliod
- U.S. Geological SurveyForest and Rangeland Ecosystem Science Center Boise Idaho 83706 USA
| | - Michelle M. Wiest
- Department of Statistical ScienceUniversity of Idaho Moscow Idaho 83844‐1104 USA
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10
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Badingqiuying, Smith AT, Senko J, Siladan MU. Plateau PikaOchotona curzoniaePoisoning Campaign Reduces Carnivore Abundance in Southern Qinghai, China. MAMMAL STUDY 2016. [DOI: 10.3106/041.041.0102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Harris RB, Wenying W, Badinqiuying, Smith AT, Bedunah DJ. Herbivory and Competition of Tibetan Steppe Vegetation in Winter Pasture: Effects of Livestock Exclosure and Plateau Pika Reduction. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0132897. [PMID: 26208005 PMCID: PMC4514881 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0132897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2015] [Accepted: 05/25/2015] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Rangeland degradation has been identified as a serious concern in alpine regions of western China on the Qinghai-Tibetan plateau (QTP). Numerous government-sponsored programs have been initiated, including many that feature long-term grazing prohibitions and some that call for eliminating pastoralism altogether. As well, government programs have long favored eliminating plateau pikas (Ochotona curzoniae), assumed to contribute to degraded conditions. However, vegetation on the QTP evolved in the presence of herbivory, suggesting that deleterious effects from grazing are, to some extent, compensated for by reduced plant-plant competition. We examined the dynamics of common steppe ecosystem species as well as physical indicators of rangeland stress by excluding livestock and reducing pika abundance on experimental plots, and following responses for 4 years. We established 12 fenced livestock exclosures within pastures grazed during winter by local pastoralists, and removed pikas on half of these. We established paired, permanent vegetation plots within and outside exclosures and measured indices of erosion and biomass of common plant species. We observed modest restoration of physical site conditions (reduced bare soil, erosion, greater vegetation cover) with both livestock exclusion and pika reduction. As expected in areas protected from grazing, we observed a reduction in annual productivity of plant species avoided by livestock and assumed to compete poorly when protected from grazing. Contrary to expectation, we observed similar reductions in annual productivity among palatable, perennial graminoids under livestock exclusion. The dominant grass, Stipa purpurea, displayed evidence of density-dependent growth, suggesting that intra-specific competition exerted a regulatory effect on annual production in the absence of grazing. Complete grazing bans on winter pastures in steppe habitats on the QTP may assist in the recovery of highly eroded pastures, but may not increase annual vegetative production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard B. Harris
- Department of Ecosystem and Conservation Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, Montana, United States of America
| | - Wang Wenying
- Qinghai Normal University, Xining, Qinghai, People’s Republic of China
| | - Badinqiuying
- Department of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, United States of America
| | - Andrew T. Smith
- Department of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, United States of America
| | - Donald J. Bedunah
- Department of Forest Management, University of Montana, Missoula, Montana, United States of America
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