The finding of Echinostoma (Trematoda: Digenea) and hookworm eggs in coprolites collected from a Brazilian mummified body dated 600-1,200 years before present

Integrating paleoparasitological, paleogenetic, and archaeological data to understand the paleoecological scenario of pre-Columbian archaeological site Gruta do Gentio II, Brazil

Paleoparasitology and paleogenetics is the study parasites in ancient remains from latrines, mummified individuals, and coprolites, that is fossilized or desiccated feces. Paleoparasitological studies in Brazil began with analyses of coprolites from the Gruta do Gentio II (GGII) archaeological site, the oldest site related to the Una ceramist tradition (12,000 to 410 BP), Brazil. The GGII archaeological site contained numerous human burials, lithics, and cultural artifacts such as basketry, ceremonial ornaments, and unique pottery of the Una tradition. Coprolites of GGII were submitted to paleoparasitological, and paleogenetic analyses for parasite identification and coprolite origin. In addition, the archaeological characterization of the GGII site was integrated into paleo analyses for proposing a paleoecological scenario. Five taxa of parasites, including Ancylostomidae, Echinostoma sp., Spirometra sp., and Trichostrongylus sp., and three different morphotypes of Capillariidae were recognized in multiple coprolites that were distributed heterogeneously in several stratigraphical layers. The origin of coprolites was genetically defined as five species of mammals, humans, felines as Panthera onca and Leopardus pardalis, and marsupials as Didelphis albiventris and Philander opossum. This is the first study in Brazil that identified both, parasites and species of animals in Pleistocene/Holocene producers of coprolites with geographical and temporal information. The integration of paleoparasitology, paleogenetics, and archaeology is essential to propose paleoecological scenarios from the past of Brazil.

Recovering ancient parasites from Andean herbivores: test of the Mini-FLOTAC technique in archaeological samples

The optimization of techniques for recovering parasitic remains is key in paleoparasitology. The Mini-FLOTAC technique (MF) is based on passive flotation and is used for diagnosis of parasites and was never tested on ancient samples. Our objective was to assess the effectiveness of MF in paleoparasitology, aiming at improving the techniques for the recovery of parasitic remains in order to upgrade the interpretative potential of the paleoparasitological evidence. Three techniques were tested: MF, spontaneous sedimentation (SS), and centrifugation-sucrose flotation (CF) testing camelid and goat coprolites. Statistical tests were performed with the R software. Our result displayed that, in the case of SAC samples, MF recovered less number of parasitic species than SS, but obtained a greater number of positive samples for protozoa. For goat samples, MF recovered a higher number of positive samples and parasitic species than SS, added that it was the technique that recovered a greater number of parasite structures. Therefore, results vary according to the zoological origin of the samples and the parasitic species recorded. We suggest starting using MF on ancient samples as a complementary method to those traditionally used in paleoparasitology. It is important to highlight that MF was a simple and faster way. The incorporation of reliable quantitative techniques opens the door to a new way of analyzing archaeological remains, deepening the study of the parasite-host relationships and its evolution through time with an epidemiological approach. Although further studies are needed, our results suggest the complementarity of these techniques in future paleoparasitological studies.

PALEOEPIDEMIOLOGY OF DIPHYLLOBOTHRIOSIS: CULTURAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AFFECTING ADENOCEPHALUS INTENSITY AND PREVALENCE

Peruvian and Chilean mummies and coprolites provide a source of population-based parasitological information. This is especially true of the fish tapeworm, Adenocephalus pacificus. Our analysis of Chinchorro and Chiribaya mummies and diversified coprolite samples from Chile and Peru show variation in infection. There is a statistically significant difference in prevalence between Chinchorro hunter-gatherer and Chiribaya mixed-subsistence contexts. Furthermore, the most pronounced differences occur between populations within these groups. Chinchorro differences in cemeteries at the same location can be related to El Niño-Southern Oscillation variations. Pronounced prevalence variations between 3 Chiribaya villages within 7 km of each other relate to fish distribution and preparation variation. As with other recent archaeoparasitology studies, eggs-per-gram data exhibit overdispersion.

Paleoparasitology research on ancient helminth eggs and larvae in the Republic of Korea

Paleoparasitology is a discipline that applies existing conventional and molecular techniques to study parasites found in ancient ruins. This review focuses on the history of the discovery of parasites (mostly helminth eggs and larvae) in archaeological soil samples and mummies in Korea from the Three Kingdoms Period to the Joseon Dynasty (100 BCE-1910 CE). We also briefly review important milestones in global paleoparasitology. The helminth species reported so far in Korea included Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichuris trichiura, Strongyloides stercoralis (larva), Trichostrongylus sp. (larva), Paracapillaria philippinensis (syn. Capillaria philippinensis), Enterobius vermicularis, Fasciola hepatica, dicrocoeliids, Paragonimus westermani, Clonorchis sinensis, Metagonimus yokogawai, Pygidiopsis summa, Gymnophalloides seoi, Isthmiophora hortensis, Dibothriocephalus nihonkaiensis (syn. Diphyllobothrium nihonkaiense), and Taenia spp. tapeworms. The findings obtained by Korean paleoparasitologists/archaeologists have brought about deep insight into the status of helminthic infections in Korea's past populations. Continued paleoparasitological research is essential for further understanding of ancient parasites and parasitic diseases in Korea.

Taxonomy of Echinostoma revolutum and 37-Collar-Spined Echinostoma spp.: A Historical Review

Echinostoma flukes armed with 37 collar spines on their head collar are called as 37-collar-spined Echinostoma spp. (group) or 'Echinostoma revolutum group'. At least 56 nominal species have been described in this group. However, many of them were morphologically close to and difficult to distinguish from the other, thus synonymized with the others. However, some of the synonymies were disagreed by other researchers, and taxonomic debates have been continued. Fortunately, recent development of molecular techniques, in particular, sequencing of the mitochondrial (nad1 and cox1) and nuclear genes (ITS region; ITS1-5.8S-ITS2), has enabled us to obtain highly useful data on phylogenetic relationships of these 37-collar-spined Echinostoma spp. Thus, 16 different species are currently acknowledged to be valid worldwide, which include E. revolutum, E. bolschewense, E. caproni, E. cinetorchis, E. deserticum, E. lindoense, E. luisreyi, E. mekongi, E. miyagawai, E. nasincovae, E. novaezealandense, E. paraensei, E. paraulum, E. robustum, E. trivolvis, and Echinostoma sp. IG of Georgieva et al., 2013. The validity of the other 10 species is retained until further evaluation, including molecular analyses; E. acuticauda, E. barbosai, E. chloephagae, E. echinatum, E. jurini, E. nudicaudatum, E. parvocirrus, E. pinnicaudatum, E. ralli, and E. rodriguesi. In this review, the history of discovery and taxonomic debates on these 26 valid or validity-retained species are briefly reviewed.

Recovering parasites from mummies and coprolites: an epidemiological approach

In the field of archaeological parasitology, researchers have long documented the distribution of parasites in archaeological time and space through the analysis of coprolites and human remains. This area of research defined the origin and migration of parasites through presence/absence studies. By the end of the 20th century, the field of pathoecology had emerged as researchers developed an interest in the ancient ecology of parasite transmission. Supporting studies were conducted to establish the relationships between parasites and humans, including cultural, subsistence, and ecological reconstructions. Parasite prevalence data were collected to infer the impact of parasitism on human health. In the last few decades, a paleoepidemiological approach has emerged with a focus on applying statistical techniques for quantification. The application of egg per gram (EPG) quantification methods provide data about parasites' prevalence in ancient populations and also identify the pathological potential that parasitism presented in different time periods and geographic places. Herein, we compare the methods used in several laboratories for reporting parasite prevalence and EPG quantification. We present newer quantification methods to explore patterns of parasite overdispersion among ancient people. These new methods will be able to produce more realistic measures of parasite infections among people of the past. These measures allow researchers to compare epidemiological patterns in both ancient and modern populations.

Reestablishing rigor in archaeological parasitology

Archaeological parasitology originated in the mid-twentieth century with interdisciplinary teams of specialists directed by archaeologists. The goals of such studies were detailed analyses of dietary, medicinal, and environmental factors that shaped the patterns of infection. By the 1970s, a cadre of unique coprolite analysts was trained to analyze macroscopic and microscopic remains for integrated reconstructions of the cultural determinants of parasitism. During these first phases of research, diagnostic rigor was maintained by direct training of specialists in parasitology and archaeology sub-disciplines including archaeobotany and archaeopalynology. Near the end of the twentieth century, however, "paleoparasitology" was defined as a separate field focusing on defining parasite distribution through time and space. Ironically, this focus resulted in an increase in misdiagnosis, especially prominent after 2000. Paleoparasitology does not explicitly include other specialized studies in it research design. Thus, dietary, environmental and medicinal inferences have been neglected or lost as samples were destroyed solely for the purpose of parasitological analysis. Without ancillary archaeological studies, paleoparasitology runs the risk of separation from archaeological context, thereby reducing its value to the archaeologists who recover samples for analysis.

A Case of Ectopic Paragonimiasis in a 17th Century Korean Mummy

Archaeoparasitological studies on fossilized feces obtained from Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910 CE) mummies have provided invaluable data on the patterns of parasitic infection in pre-modern Korean societies. In our recent radiological investigation of a 17th century Joseon mummy discovered in Cheongdo (South Korea), we located a liver mass just below the diaphragm. Anatomical dissection confirmed the presence of a mass of unknown etiology. A subsequent parasitological examination of a sample of the mass revealed a large number of ancient Paragonimus sp. eggs, making the current report the first archaeoparasitological case of liver abscess caused by ectopic paragonimiasis.

Prehistoric Pathoecology as Represented by Parasites of a Mummy from the Peruaçu Valley, Brazil

Paleopathologists have begun exploring the pathoecology of parasitic diseases in relation to diet and environment. We are summarizing the parasitological findings from a mummy in the site of Lapa do Boquete, a Brazilian cave in the state of Minas Gerais. These findings in context of the archaeology of the site provided insights into the pathoecology of disease transmission in cave and rockshelter environments. We are presenting a description of the site followed by the evidence of hookworm, intestinal fluke, and Trypanosoma infection with resulting Chagas disease in the mummy discovered in the cave. These findings are used to reconstruct the transmission ecology of the site.

The Paleoparasitology in Brazil and Findings in Human Remains from South America: A Review

The review article presents some of the history of how paleoparasitology started in Brazil, making highlight the great responsible Dr. Luiz Fernando Ferreira and Dr. Adauto Araújo, the trajectory of paleoparasitology in Brazil since 1978 and its performance in science to the present day. In sequence, it is made a presentation of parasitological findings on human remains found in archaeological sites in South America, highlighting Brazil, Argentina, Chile, and Peru, where major discoveries have occurred. Many of the parasites found in archaeological material and mentioned in this review went out of Africa with the peopling of Europe and from there they dispersed around the world, where climatic conditions allow the transmission. However, humans have acquired other parasites of animals, since humans invaded new habitats or creating new habits adopting new technologies, thus expanding its range of influence on the environment. Thus, this review article is finalized with information that explain the importance of these findings in the interaction between parasites, human host, and ambient.

Temporal and Spatial Distribution of Enterobius vermicularis (Nematoda: Oxyuridae) in the Prehistoric Americas

Investigations of Enterobius sp. infection in prehistory have produced a body of data that can be used to evaluate the geographic distribution of infection through time in the Americas. Regional variations in prevalence are evident. In North America, 119 pinworm positive samples were found in 1,112 samples from 28 sites with a prevalence of 10.7%. Almost all of the positive samples came from agricultural sites. From Brazil, 0 pinworm positive samples were found in 325 samples from 7 sites. For the Andes region, 22 pinworm positive samples were found in 411 samples from 26 sites for a prevalence of 5.3%. Detailed analyses of these data defined several trends. First, preagricultural sites less frequently show evidence of infection compared to agricultural populations. This is especially clear in the data from North America, but is also evident in the data from South America. Second, there is an apparent relationship between the commonality of pinworms in coprolites and the manner of constructing villages. These analyses show that ancient parasitism has substantial value in documenting the range of human behaviors that influence parasitic infections.

Human Coprolites as a Source for Paleomicrobiology

The paleomicrobiology of coprolites, which are fossilized fecal materials, has already yielded data about various organisms, including micro-eukaryotes, bacteria, and archaea, thus expanding our comprehension of ancient human dietary habits, gut microbiota, and intestinal and systemic infections. This mini-review briefly describes previous works and summarizes the main techniques used in handling coprolites and the findings obtained about ancient gut microbiota. Past intestinal and systemic infections are outlined.

Echinostomes in Felid Coprolites from Brazil

The first record of Echinostoma (Trematoda: Echinostomatidae) in coprolites was from a mummified human body in Minas Gerais State, Brazil. The finding raised questions on this parasite's incidence in prehistoric populations and the natural hosts of each species in remote times. Echinostomes occur worldwide and, despite the wide range of hosts, there is no record of Echinostomatidae in felines in Brazil. This study reports the finding of Echinostomatidae eggs in felid coprolites in the Furna do Estrago Archaeological Site, located in Pernambuco State in the Brazilian semiarid. Despite the possibility of false parasitism, the finding expands the distribution of this Digenea in remote times and raises the hypothesis of other cases of echinostomiasis in pre-Colombian populations.

Parasites and human evolution

Our understanding of human evolutionary and population history can be advanced by ecological and evolutionary studies of our parasites. Many parasites flourish only in the presence of very specific human behaviors and in specific habitats, are wholly dependent on us, and have evolved with us for thousands or millions of years. Therefore, by asking when and how we first acquired those parasites, under which environmental and cultural conditions we are the most susceptible, and how the parasites have evolved and adapted to us and we in response to them, we can gain considerable insight into our own evolutionary history. As examples, the tapeworm life cycle is dependent on our consumption of meat, the divergence of body and head lice may have been subsequent to the development of clothing, and malaria hyperendemicity may be associated with agriculture. Thus, the evolutionary and population histories of these parasites are likely intertwined with critical aspects of human biology and culture. Here I review the mechanics of these and multiple other parasite proxies for human evolutionary history and discuss how they currently complement our fossil, archeological, molecular, linguistic, historical, and ethnographic records. I also highlight potential future applications of this promising model for the field of evolutionary anthropology.

Palaeoparasitology - Human Parasites in Ancient Material

Parasite finds in ancient material launched a new field of science: palaeoparasitology. Ever since the pioneering studies, parasites were identified in archaeological and palaeontological remains, some preserved for millions of years by fossilization. However, the palaeoparasitological record consists mainly of parasites found specifically in human archaeological material, preserved in ancient occupation sites, from prehistory until closer to 2015. The results include some helminth intestinal parasites still commonly found in 2015, such as Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichuris trichiura and hookworms, besides others such as Amoebidae and Giardia intestinalis, as well as viruses, bacteria, fungi and arthropods. These parasites as a whole provide important data on health, diet, climate and living conditions among ancient populations. This chapter describes the principal findings and their importance for knowledge on the origin and dispersal of infectious diseases.

Insights about echinostomiasis by paleomolecular diagnosis

Echinostomiasis is a zoonosis caused by intestinal trematodes and transmitted by the ingestion of mollusks, crustaceans, fish, amphibians, and reptiles, either raw or poorly cooked. Today human infection is endemic in Southeast Asia and the Far East, but has been reported more recently in other regions of the world. Interestingly eggs identified as Echinostoma sp. were found in coprolites from a mummified body human in Brazil, dated 560 ± 40 BP (before present). However, the specific diagnosis based on morphology of the eggs has not been resolved at the species level. As a follow-up to the previous finding, the current study now aims to standardize the methodology for molecular diagnosis and apply it to the coprolite, using current Echinostoma paraensei-positive feces as the reference, and also the same fecal material dried in a stove as an experimental coprolite model. Isolated eggs of E. paraensei and adult worm were included to verify the sensibility and as positive control, respectively. An adult worm of E. luisreyi was used for comparison. PCR using primers in-house for ITS1 region (126 bp) and cox1 (123 bp) of Echinostoma spp. and subsequent nucleotide sequencing were performed. This is the first molecular paleoparasitological diagnosis for echinostomiasis. The methodology was able to amplify specific DNA fragments for the genus Echinostoma sp. in all samples: adult worm, feces, and a single egg of the parasite, in both the experimental coprolite and archaeological sample. Additionally we observed that ancient DNA can also be retrieved without rehydrating the material. The nucleotide sequences from E. paraensei and E. luisreyi are very similar in the fragment analyzed that difficult the differentiation these species, but DNA sequence analysis recovered in the parasite found in the mummy showed more similarity with the species E. paraensei.

Testing new parasite egg extraction methods in paleoparasitology and an attempt at quantification

In order to improve paleoparasitological analyses, we tested different acid (hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acids) and base (sodium hydroxide) combinations for parasite egg extraction in archaeological sediments. We used a method of egg counting to compare these results to those obtained with the standard paleo-parasitological RHM extraction protocol (rehydration-homogenization-micro-sieving). Tests show that the use of hydrochloric acid results in a concentration of some taxa like Ascaris sp. or Trichuris sp. and an appreciable decrease in vegetal and mineral remains. However, tests also show that acid use systematically decreases parasite species identified, as compared to the standard RHM protocol. Base use yielded even more negative results with systematically lower biodiversity than with the standard protocol, probably due to chemical processes on chitin contained in the eggshell. These results suggest acids and sodium hydroxide should be used as little as possible during extraction due to the damages they cause to the eggs of some parasite species. The counting method was an efficient technique with which to demonstrate our results and could be used in future paleoparasitology studies.

A megafauna's microfauna: gastrointestinal parasites of New Zealand's extinct moa (Aves: Dinornithiformes)

We perform the first multidisciplinary study of parasites from an extinct megafaunal clade using coprolites from the New Zealand moa (Aves: Dinornithiformes). Ancient DNA and microscopic analyses of 84 coprolites deposited by four moa species (South Island giant moa, Dinornis robustus; little bush moa, Anomalopteryx didiformis; heavy-footed moa, Pachyornis elephantopus; and upland moa, Megalapteryx didinus) reveal an array of gastrointestinal parasites including coccidians (Cryptosporidium and members of the suborder Eimeriorina), nematodes (Heterakoidea, Trichostrongylidae, Trichinellidae) and a trematode (Echinostomida). Parasite eggs were most prevalent and diverse in coprolites from lowland sites, where multiple sympatric moa species occurred and host density was therefore probably higher. Morphological and phylogenetic evidence supports a possible vicariant Gondwanan origin for some of the moa parasites. The discovery of apparently host-specific parasite taxa suggests paleoparasitological studies of megafauna coprolites may provide useful case-studies of coextinction.

Zoonotic and human parasites of inhabitants of Cueva de los Muertos Chiquitos, Rio Zape Valley, Durango, Mexico

We present the first reconstruction of the parasitoses among the people of the Loma San Gabriel culture, as represented by 36 coprolites excavated from the Cueva de los Muertos Chiquitos in Durango, Mexico. The coprolites date to approximately 1,400-yr-ago. Species identified based on eggs recovered include the trematode Echinostoma sp., the tapeworms Hymenolepis sp. and Dipylidium caninum , and the nematodes Ancylostoma duodenale, Enterobius vermicularis, and Trichuris trichiura. After rehydration and screening, 2 methods were used to recover eggs from these samples including spontaneous sedimentation and flotation. Samples were analyzed by 3 different laboratories for independent verification and comparison of methods. Spontaneous sedimentation resulted in the discovery of hymenolepidid eggs that were not found with flotation. Sedimentation was a more-sensitive indicator of prevalence as well. The modified method of flotation permitted estimation of egg concentration and resulted in the detection of a few specimens not found by sedimentation. The results of both methods showed that 19 (of 36) coprolites contained helminth eggs. Our results detected the presence of pathogenic helminths including hookworms and whipworms. The cestodes found do not cause severe pathology in humans. The early dates of hookworm and whipworm, relative to other findings in the southwest United States, indicate that these parasites arrived relatively late in prehistory in Arizona and New Mexico, probably moving into the area with travelers from Mesoamerica.

Paleoparasitological analysis of rodent coprolites in holocenic samples from Patagonia, Argentina

The aim of the present study was to examine the parasite fauna present in rodent coprolites collected from Cerro Casa de Piedra (CCP7), located in Perito Moreno National Park (P.N.PM., 47 degrees 57'S and 72 degrees 05'W), Santa Cruz Province, Argentina. Eight coprolites obtained from the layer XIII of CCP7, with an antiquity considered as 7,920 +/- 130 yr B.P, were examined for parasites. Each coprolite was whole processed, rehydrated, homogenized, spontaneously sedimented, and examined using light microscopy. Eggs of parasites were measured and photographed. All the samples were parasitized by nematodes, with 267 eggs of Trichuris sp., 24 eggs of an aspidoderid, and 3 capillariid eggs. The rodent host was tentatively identified as a species of Ctenomys, the hypogeic rodents endemic to South America. The finding of Paraspidodera in Patagonian samples represents new evidence that strengthens the co-phylogenies between nematodes of this genus and Ctenomys and reinforces the value of parasites as tags in paleoparasitology.

Animal helminths in human archaeological remains: a review of zoonoses in the past

The authors present a review of records of intestinal parasitic helminths from animals in human archaeological remains, reported since the emergence of paleopathological studies. The objective was to relate paleoparasitological findings to geographic, biotic, and abiotic factors from the environment in which the prehistoric populations lived, and understand some aspects related to the process of human dispersion and biological and cultural evolution. Modification of eating habits and the incorporation of new cultural practices are analyzed from the perspective of zoonoses from prehistory to the present day, especially in Brazilian indigenous populations. Three tables identifying the helminths, their natural hosts, dates, and sites of archaeological findings complete this review. In conclusion, various zoonoses known today have occurred since antiquity, and these data, combined with studies on the emergence and reemergence of diseases, could make possible to compose scenarios for the future.

Chinese liver flukes in latrine sediments from Wong Nim's property, San Bernardino, California: archaeoparasitology of the Caltrans District Headquarters

Parasitological analysis of 5 sediment samples from San Bernardino, California latrine deposits spanning the time period from about 1880 to the 1930s are presented. Two sediment samples are from a latrine used by European-Americans. Three sediment samples are from latrines used by Chinese-Americans on the property of Wong Nim, an important member of the Chinese community. Two of the Chinese latrines were positive for human parasites. The human parasites encountered include the human whipworm (Trichuris trichiura), the giant intestinal roundworm (Ascaris lubricoides, c.f.), and the Chinese liver fluke (Clonorchis sinensis). Evidence of the liver fluke is especially important. This parasite cannot complete its life cycle outside of its endemic range in Asia because suitable intermediate hosts are not present in the American continents. Its presence signals that at least some of the Chinese-Americans who used the latrines were immigrants who were infected in Asia and then sustained infections while in the Americas.

Parasites as probes for prehistoric human migrations?

Host-specific parasites of humans are used to track ancient migrations. Based on archaeoparasitology, it is clear that humans entered the New World at least twice in ancient times. The archaeoparasitology of some intestinal parasites in the New World points to migration routes other than the Bering Land Bridge. Helminths have been found in mummies and coprolites in North and South America. Hookworms (Necator and Ancylostoma), whipworms (Trichuris trichiura) and other helminths require specific conditions for life-cycle completion. They could not survive in the cold climate of the northern region of the Americas. Therefore, humans would have lost some intestinal parasites while crossing Beringia. Evidence is provided here from published data of pre-Columbian sites for the peopling of the Americas through trans-oceanic or costal migrations.