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Pall ML. Millimeter (MM) wave and microwave frequency radiation produce deeply penetrating effects: the biology and the physics. REVIEWS ON ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH 2022; 37:247-258. [PMID: 34043892 DOI: 10.1515/reveh-2020-0165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2020] [Accepted: 04/28/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Millimeter wave (MM-wave) electromagnetic fields (EMFs) are predicted to not produce penetrating effects in the body. The electric but not magnetic part of MM-EMFs are almost completely absorbed within the outer 1 mm of the body. Rodents are reported to have penetrating MM-wave impacts on the brain, the myocardium, liver, kidney and bone marrow. MM-waves produce electromagnetic sensitivity-like changes in rodent, frog and skate tissues. In humans, MM-waves have penetrating effects including impacts on the brain, producing EEG changes and other neurological/neuropsychiatric changes, increases in apparent electromagnetic hypersensitivity and produce changes on ulcers and cardiac activity. This review focuses on several issues required to understand penetrating effects of MM-waves and microwaves: 1. Electronically generated EMFs are coherent, producing much higher electrical and magnetic forces then do natural incoherent EMFs. 2. The fixed relationship between electrical and magnetic fields found in EMFs in a vacuum or highly permeable medium such as air, predicted by Maxwell's equations, breaks down in other materials. Specifically, MM-wave electrical fields are almost completely absorbed in the outer 1 mm of the body due to the high dielectric constant of biological aqueous phases. However, the magnetic fields are very highly penetrating. 3. Time-varying magnetic fields have central roles in producing highly penetrating effects. The primary mechanism of EMF action is voltage-gated calcium channel (VGCC) activation with the EMFs acting via their forces on the voltage sensor, rather than by depolarization of the plasma membrane. Two distinct mechanisms, an indirect and a direct mechanism, are consistent with and predicted by the physics, to explain penetrating MM-wave VGCC activation via the voltage sensor. Time-varying coherent magnetic fields, as predicted by the Maxwell-Faraday version of Faraday's law of induction, can put forces on ions dissolved in aqueous phases deep within the body, regenerating coherent electric fields which activate the VGCC voltage sensor. In addition, time-varying magnetic fields can directly put forces on the 20 charges in the VGCC voltage sensor. There are three very important findings here which are rarely recognized in the EMF scientific literature: coherence of electronically generated EMFs; the key role of time-varying magnetic fields in generating highly penetrating effects; the key role of both modulating and pure EMF pulses in greatly increasing very short term high level time-variation of magnetic and electric fields. It is probable that genuine safety guidelines must keep nanosecond timescale-variation of coherent electric and magnetic fields below some maximum level in order to produce genuine safety. These findings have important implications with regard to 5G radiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin L Pall
- Biochemistry and Basic Medical Sciences, Washington State University, Portland, OR 97232-3312, USA
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Bertagna F, Lewis R, Silva SRP, McFadden J, Jeevaratnam K. Thapsigargin blocks electromagnetic field-elicited intracellular Ca 2+ increase in HEK 293 cells. Physiol Rep 2022; 10:e15189. [PMID: 35510320 PMCID: PMC9069166 DOI: 10.14814/phy2.15189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2021] [Revised: 01/06/2022] [Accepted: 01/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Biological effects of electromagnetic fields (EMFs) have previously been identified for cellular proliferation and changes in expression and conduction of diverse types of ion channels. The major effect elicited by EMFs seems to be directed toward Ca2+ homeostasis. This is particularly remarkable since Ca2+ acts as a central modulator in various signaling pathways, including, but not limited to, cell differentiation and survival. Despite this, the mechanisms underlying this modulation have yet to be unraveled. Here, we assessed the effect of EMFs on intracellular [Ca2+], by exposing HEK 293 cells to both radio‐frequency electromagnetic fields (RF‐EMFs) and static magnetic fields (SMFs). We detected a constant and significant increase in [Ca2+] subsequent to exposure to both types of fields. Strikingly, the increase was nulled by administration of 10 μM Thapsigargin, a blocker of sarco/endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+‐ATPases (SERCAs), indicating the involvement of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) in EMF‐related modulation of Ca2+ homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federico Bertagna
- Leverhulme Quantum Biology Doctoral Training Centre, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey, UK.,School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey, UK
| | - Rebecca Lewis
- Leverhulme Quantum Biology Doctoral Training Centre, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey, UK.,School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey, UK
| | - S Ravi P Silva
- Leverhulme Quantum Biology Doctoral Training Centre, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey, UK.,Advanced Technology Institute, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey, UK
| | - Johnjoe McFadden
- Leverhulme Quantum Biology Doctoral Training Centre, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey, UK.,School of Biosciences and Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey, UK
| | - Kamalan Jeevaratnam
- Leverhulme Quantum Biology Doctoral Training Centre, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey, UK.,School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey, UK
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Leszczynski D. Physiological effects of millimeter-waves on skin and skin cells: an overview of the to-date published studies. REVIEWS ON ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH 2020; 35:493-515. [PMID: 32829319 DOI: 10.1515/reveh-2020-0056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2020] [Accepted: 05/27/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The currently ongoing deployment if the fifth generation of the wireless communication technology, the 5G technology, has reignited the health debate around the new kind of radiation that will be used/emitted by the 5G devices and networks - the millimeter-waves. The new aspect of the 5G technology, that is of concern to some of the future users, is that both, antennas and devices will be continuously in a very close proximity of the users' bodies. Skin is the only organ of the human body, besides the eyes, that will be directly exposed to the mm-waves of the 5G technology. However, the whole scientific evidence on the possible effects of millimeter-waves on skin and skin cells, currently consists of only some 99 studies. This clearly indicates that the scientific evidence concerning the possible effects of millimeter-waves on humans is insufficient to devise science-based exposure limits and to develop science-based human health policies. The sufficient research has not been done and, therefore, precautionary measures should be considered for the deployment of the 5G, before the sufficient number of quality research studies will be executed and health risk, or lack of it, scientifically established.
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Nizhelska O, Marynchenko L, Piasetskyi V. Biological Risks of Using Non-Thermal Non-Ionizing Electromagnetic Fields. INNOVATIVE BIOSYSTEMS AND BIOENGINEERING 2020. [DOI: 10.20535/ibb.2020.4.2.202452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
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Simkó M, Mattsson MO. 5G Wireless Communication and Health Effects-A Pragmatic Review Based on Available Studies Regarding 6 to 100 GHz. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2019; 16:E3406. [PMID: 31540320 PMCID: PMC6765906 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph16183406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2019] [Revised: 09/09/2019] [Accepted: 09/11/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The introduction of the fifth generation (5G) of wireless communication will increase the number of high-frequency-powered base stations and other devices. The question is if such higher frequencies (in this review, 6-100 GHz, millimeter waves, MMW) can have a health impact. This review analyzed 94 relevant publications performing in vivo or in vitro investigations. Each study was characterized for: study type (in vivo, in vitro), biological material (species, cell type, etc.), biological endpoint, exposure (frequency, exposure duration, power density), results, and certain quality criteria. Eighty percent of the in vivo studies showed responses to exposure, while 58% of the in vitro studies demonstrated effects. The responses affected all biological endpoints studied. There was no consistent relationship between power density, exposure duration, or frequency, and exposure effects. The available studies do not provide adequate and sufficient information for a meaningful safety assessment, or for the question about non-thermal effects. There is a need for research regarding local heat developments on small surfaces, e.g., skin or the eye, and on any environmental impact. Our quality analysis shows that for future studies to be useful for safety assessment, design and implementation need to be significantly improved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Myrtill Simkó
- SciProof International AB, Vaktpoststigen 4, 83132 Östersund, Sweden.
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Luo FL, Yang N, He C, Li HL, Li C, Chen F, Xiong JX, Hu ZA, Zhang J. Exposure to extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields alters the calcium dynamics of cultured entorhinal cortex neurons. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2014; 135:236-246. [PMID: 25462671 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2014.09.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2014] [Revised: 08/25/2014] [Accepted: 09/13/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Previous studies have revealed that extremely low frequency electromagnetic field (ELF-EMF) exposure affects neuronal dendritic spine density and NMDAR and AMPAR subunit expressions in the entorhinal cortex (EC). Although calcium signaling has a critical role in control of EC neuronal functions, however, it is still unclear whether the ELF-EMF exposure affects the EC neuronal calcium homeostasis. In the present study, using whole-cell recording and calcium imaging, we record the whole-cell inward currents that contain the voltage-gated calcium currents and show that ELF-EMF (50Hz, 1mT or 3mT, lasting 24h) exposure does not influence these currents. Next, we specifically isolate the high-voltage activated (HVA) and low-voltage activated (LVA) calcium channels-induced currents. Similarly, the activation and inactivation characteristics of these membrane calcium channels are also not influenced by ELF-EMF. Importantly, ELF-EMF exposure reduces the maximum amplitude of the high-K(+)-evoked calcium elevation in EC neurons, which is abolished by thapsigargin, a Ca(2+) ATPase inhibitor, to empty the intracellular calcium stores of EC neurons. Together, these findings indicate that ELF-EMF exposure specifically influences the intracellular calcium dynamics of cultural EC neurons via a calcium channel-independent mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fen-Lan Luo
- Department of Physiology, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, PR China
| | - Nian Yang
- Department of Physiology, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, PR China
| | - Chao He
- Department of Physiology, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, PR China
| | - Hong-Li Li
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, PR China
| | - Chao Li
- Department of Physiology, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, PR China
| | - Fang Chen
- Department of Physiology, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, PR China
| | - Jia-Xiang Xiong
- Department of Physiology, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, PR China
| | - Zhi-An Hu
- Department of Physiology, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, PR China.
| | - Jun Zhang
- Department of Physiology, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, PR China.
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Le Quément C, Nicolaz CN, Habauzit D, Zhadobov M, Sauleau R, Le Dréan Y. Impact of 60-GHz millimeter waves and corresponding heat effect on endoplasmic reticulum stress sensor gene expression. Bioelectromagnetics 2014; 35:444-51. [PMID: 25099539 DOI: 10.1002/bem.21864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2013] [Accepted: 05/17/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Emerging high data rate wireless communication systems, currently under development, will operate at millimeter waves (MMW) and specifically in the 60 GHz band for broadband short-range communications. The aim of this study was to investigate potential effects of MMW radiation on the cellular endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. Human skin cell lines were exposed at 60.4 GHz, with incident power densities (IPD) ranging between 1 and 20 mW/cm(2) . The upper IPD limits correspond to the ICNIRP local exposure limit for the general public. The expression of ER-stress sensors, namely BIP and ORP150, was then examined by real-time RT-PCR. Our experimental data demonstrated that MMW radiations do not change BIP or ORP150 mRNA basal levels, whatever the cell line, the exposure duration or the IPD level. Co-exposure to the well-known ER-stress inducer thapsigargin (TG) and MMW were then assessed. Our results show that MMW exposure at 20 mW/cm(2) inhibits TG-induced BIP and ORP150 over expression. Experimental controls showed that this inhibition is linked to the thermal effect resulting from the MMW exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine Le Quément
- Transcription, Environment and Cancer Group, Institute of Research in Environmental and Occupational Health-IRSET, INSERM, University of Rennes 1, Rennes, France
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Samsonov A, Popov SV. The effect of a 94 GHz electromagnetic field on neuronal microtubules. Bioelectromagnetics 2012; 34:133-44. [PMID: 23080284 DOI: 10.1002/bem.21760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2011] [Accepted: 09/15/2012] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Hardware that generates electromagnetic waves with wavelengths from 1 to 10 mm (millimeter waves, "MMW") is being used in a variety of applications, including high-speed data communication and medical devices. This raises both practical and fundamental issues concerning the interaction of MMW electromagnetic fields (EMF) with biological tissues. A 94 GHz EMF is of particular interest because a number of applications, such as active denial systems, rely on this specific frequency. Most of the energy associated with MMW radiation is absorbed in the skin and, for a 94 GHz field, the power penetration depth is shallow (≈0.4 mm). At sufficiently high energies, skin heating is expected to activate thermal pain receptors, leading to the perception of pain. In addition to this "thermal" mechanism of action, a number of "non-thermal" effects of MMW fields have been previously reported. Here, we investigated the influence of a 94 GHz EMF on the assembly/disassembly of neuronal microtubules in Xenopus spinal cord neurons. We reasoned that since microtubule array is regulated by a large number of intracellular signaling cascades, it may serve as an exquisitely sensitive reporter for the biochemical status of neuronal cytoplasm. We found that exposure to 94 GHz radiation increases the rate of microtubule assembly and that this effect can be entirely accounted for by the rapid EMF-elicited temperature jump. Our data are consistent with the notion that the cellular effects of a 94 GHz EMF are mediated entirely by cell heating.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrey Samsonov
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
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Sun S, Titushkin I, Varner J, Cho M. Millimeter wave-induced modulation of calcium dynamics in an engineered skin co-culture model: role of secreted ATP on calcium spiking. JOURNAL OF RADIATION RESEARCH 2012; 53:159-167. [PMID: 22510588 DOI: 10.1269/jrr.11037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
We have previously designed and characterized a 94 GHz exposure system that allows real-time monitoring of subcellular interactions induced by millimeter wave (MMW) stimulation. For example, studies of the calcium dynamics in neuronal cells in response to 94 GHz irradiation suggested that MMW stimulation increased calcium spiking. In this study, we engineered a 3D co-culture model that represents the major constituents of skin. We used this experimental model along with the custom-designed MMW exposure system to investigate the effects of 94 GHz irradiation in the skin-like tissue construct. Unlike typical non-excitable cells, keratinocytes exhibited calcium spikes in their resting state. Exposure to a 94 GHz irradiation induced a statistically significant increase in the calcium spiking. When co-cultured with neuronal cells in the 3D co-culture skin model, changes in the calcium spiking in neuronal cells depended on the MMW input power. Further, the 94 GHz irradiation caused ATP secretion by keratincytes. ATP is a major factor that modulates the calcium spiking in neuronal cells. Surprisingly, while a 5-fold increase in the ATP secretion enhanced the calcium spiking in neuronal cells, a 10-fold increase significantly hindered the calcium dynamics. Computational simulation of ATP-induced calcium dynamics was in general agreement with the experimental findings, suggesting the involvement of the ATP-sensitive purinergic receptors. The engineered co-culture skin model offers a physiologically relevant environment in which the calcium dynamics is regulated both by the cell-MMW and cell-cell interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shan Sun
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois, Chicago, IL, USA
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Pickard WF, Moros EG, Shafirstein G. Electromagnetic and thermal evaluation of an applicator specialized to permit high-resolution non-perturbing optical evaluation of cells being irradiated in the W-band. Bioelectromagnetics 2009; 31:140-9. [PMID: 19731242 DOI: 10.1002/bem.20539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
To permit epi-illuminated, high-resolution optical microscopy of cells in monolayer culture during unperturbed W-band (75-110 GHz) irradiation, a new class of applicator has been developed based upon WR10 rectangular waveguide components: the cells are normally plated onto the underside of a coverslip which is then placed against the under side of a waveguide flange and receives a roughly circular exposure pattern, with the +/-1 dB central spot roughly 1 mm in diameter. Constructed and tested with 94 GHz millimeter waves, water-immersion optics, and free-convection cooling, the applicator works robustly and permits SARs at the cell layer as high as 4500 W/kg before the steady-state temperature rise at the cell layer exceeds 0.5 K.
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Affiliation(s)
- William F Pickard
- Department of Electrical and Systems Engineering, Washington University, Saint Louis, MO 63130, USA.
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