AMPK potentiates hypertonicity-induced apoptosis by suppressing NFκB/COX-2 in medullary interstitial cells

The NF-κB/FXR/TonEBP pathway protects renal medullary interstitial cells against hypertonic stress

Farnesoid X receptor (FXR), a ligand-activated transcription factor, plays an important role in maintaining water homeostasis by up-regulating aquaporin 2 (AQP2) expression in renal medullary collecting ducts; however, its role in the survival of renal medullary interstitial cells (RMICs) under hypertonic conditions remains unclear. We cultured primary mouse RMICs and found that the FXR was expressed constitutively in RMICs, and that its expression was significantly up-regulated at both mRNA and protein levels by hypertonic stress. Using luciferase and ChIP assays, we found a potential binding site of nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) located in the FXR gene promoter which can be bound and activated by NF-κB. Moreover, hypertonic stress-induced cell death in RMICs was significantly attenuated by FXR activation but worsened by FXR inhibition. Furthermore, FXR increased the expression and nuclear translocation of hypertonicity-induced tonicity-responsive enhance-binding protein (TonEBP), the expressions of its downstream target gene sodium myo-inositol transporter (SMIT), and heat shock protein 70 (HSP70). The present study demonstrates that the NF-κB/FXR/TonEBP pathway protects RMICs against hypertonic stress.

Neutral amino acid transporter SLC38A2 protects renal medulla from hyperosmolarity-induced ferroptosis

Hyperosmolarity of the renal medulla is essential for urine concentration and water homeostasis. However, how renal medullary collecting duct (MCD) cells survive and function under harsh hyperosmotic stress remains unclear. Using RNA-Seq, we identified SLC38A2 as a novel osmoresponsive neutral amino acid transporter in MCD cells. Hyperosmotic stress-induced cell death in MCD cells occurred mainly via ferroptosis, and it was significantly attenuated by SLC38A2 overexpression but worsened by Slc38a2-gene deletion or silencing. Mechanistic studies revealed that the osmoprotective effect of SLC38A2 is dependent on the activation of mTORC1. Moreover, an in vivo study demonstrated that Slc38a2-knockout mice exhibited significantly increased medullary ferroptosis following water restriction. Collectively, these findings reveal that Slc38a2 is an important osmoresponsive gene in the renal medulla and provide novel insights into the critical role of SLC38A2 in protecting MCD cells from hyperosmolarity-induced ferroptosis via the mTORC1 signalling pathway.

Aspirin Protects against UVB-Induced DNA Damage through Activation of AMP Kinase

The anti-inflammatory and chemopreventive activities of aspirin (ASA) may be mediated through its cyclooxygenase inhibitor function. We have previously shown that ASA can protect against UVR-induced skin inflammation and DNA damage; however, the role of inflammation in UV-induced DNA damage and the mechanism underlying ASA protection are poorly characterized. Using immunodeficient NOD scid gamma mice and immunocompetent C57BL/6 mice treated with immune cell‒depleting antibodies, we found that inflammation was not required for UVB-induced 8-oxoguanine and cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers in vivo. Unlike ASA, neither its immediate metabolite salicylate nor the cyclooxygenase inhibitor indomethacin reduced UVB-induced 8-oxoguanine or cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers in melanocyte Melan-a or keratinocyte HaCat cells in vitro. Moreover, addition of prostaglandin E₂ did not reverse the protective effect of ASA on UVB-treated cells. Phosphorylation of the 5' AMP protein kinase, observed in ASA-treated cells, could be blocked by the 5' AMP protein kinase inhibitor compound C. Compound C or 5' AMP protein kinase knockdown partially reduced ASA-mediated protection against UVB-induced DNA damage. Finally, injection of compound C partially reversed the protective effect of ASA on UVB-treated mouse skin in vivo. These studies suggest that ASA confers protection against UVB-induced DNA damage through the activation of 5' AMP protein kinase rather than through cyclooxygenase inhibition.

The Role of Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptors in Kidney Diseases

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) are members of the nuclear hormone receptor superfamily of ligand-activated transcription factors. Accumulating evidence suggests that PPARs may play an important role in the pathogenesis of kidney disease. All three members of the PPAR subfamily, PPARα, PPARβ/δ, and PPARγ, have been implicated in many renal pathophysiological conditions, including acute kidney injury, diabetic nephropathy, and chronic kidney disease, among others. Emerging data suggest that PPARs may be potential therapeutic targets for renal disease. This article reviews the physiological roles of PPARs in the kidney and discusses the therapeutic utility of PPAR agonists in the treatment of kidney disease.

NFAT5-Mediated Signalling Pathways in Viral Infection and Cardiovascular Dysfunction

The nuclear factor of activated T cells 5 (NFAT5) is well known for its sensitivity to cellular osmolarity changes, such as in the kidney medulla. Accumulated evidence indicates that NFAT5 is also a sensitive factor to stress signals caused by non-hypertonic stimuli such as heat shock, biomechanical stretch stress, ischaemia, infection, etc. These osmolality-related and -unrelated stimuli can induce NFAT5 upregulation, activation and nuclear accumulation, leading to its protective role against various detrimental effects. However, dysregulation of NFAT5 expression may cause pathological conditions in different tissues, leading to a variety of diseases. These protective or pathogenic effects of NFAT5 are dictated by the regulation of its target gene expression and activation of its signalling pathways. Recent studies have found a number of kinases that participate in the phosphorylation/activation of NFAT5 and related signal proteins. Thus, this review will focus on the NFAT5-mediated signal transduction pathways. As for the stimuli that upregulate NFAT5, in addition to the stresses caused by hyperosmotic and non-hyperosmotic environments, other factors such as miRNA, long non-coding RNA, epigenetic modification and viral infection also play an important role in regulating NFAT5 expression; thus, the discussion in this regard is another focus of this review. As the heart, unlike the kidneys, is not normally exposed to hypertonic environments, studies on NFAT5-mediated cardiovascular diseases are just emerging and rapidly progressing. Therefore, we have also added a review on the progress made in this field of research.

The interaction between protein kinase A and progesterone on basal and inflammation-induced myometrial oxytocin receptor expression

Our previous work has shown myometrial PKA activity declines in term and twin-preterm labour in association with an increase in the expression of the oxytocin receptor (OTR). Here we investigate the action of cAMP/PKA in basal conditions, with the addition of progesterone (P4) and/or IL-1β to understand how cAMP/PKA acts to maintain pregnancy and whether the combination of cAMP and P4 would be a viable therapeutic combination for the prevention of preterm labour (PTL). Further, given that we have previously found that cAMP enhances P4 action we wanted to test the hypothesis that changes in the cAMP effector system are responsible for the functional withdrawal of myometrial P4 action. Myometrial cells were grown from biopsies obtained from women at the time of elective Caesarean section before the onset of labour. The addition of forskolin, an adenylyl cyclase activator, repressed basal OTR mRNA levels at all doses and P4 only enhanced this effect at its highest dose. Forskolin repressed the IL-1β-induced increase in OTR mRNA and protein levels in a PKA-dependent fashion and repressed IL-1β-activation and nuclear transfer of NFκB and AP-1. P4 had similar effects and the combination P4 and forskolin had greater effects on OTR and NFκB than forskolin alone. While PKA knockdown had no effect on the ability of P4 to repress IL-1β-induced OTR expression it reversed the repressive effect of the combination of P4 and forskolin and resulted in a greater increase than observed with IL-1β alone. These studies suggest that cAMP acts via PKA to repress inflammation-driven OTR expression, but that when PKA activity is reduced, the combination of cAMP and P4 actually enhances the OTR response to inflammation, promoting the onset of labour and suggesting that changes in the cAMP effector system can induce a functional P4 withdrawal.

Role of PKC and AMPK in hypertonicity-stimulated water reabsorption in rat inner medullary collecting ducts

Hypertonicity increases water permeability, independently of vasopressin, in the inner medullary collecting duct (IMCD) by increasing aquaporin-2 (AQP2) membrane accumulation. We investigated whether protein kinase C (PKC) and adenosine monophosphate kinase (AMPK) are involved in hypertonicity-regulated water permeability. Increasing perfusate osmolality from 150 to 290 mosmol/kgH₂O and bath osmolality from 290 to 430 mosmol/kgH₂O significantly stimulated osmotic water permeability. The PKC inhibitors chelerythrine (10 µM) and rottlerin (50 µM) significantly reversed the increase in osmotic water permeability stimulated by hypertonicity in perfused rat terminal IMCDs. Chelerythrine significantly increased phosphorylation of AQP2 at S261 but not at S256. Previous studies show that AMPK is stimulated by osmotic stress. We tested AMPK phosphorylation under hypertonic conditions. Hypertonicity significantly increased AMPK phosphorylation in inner medullary tissues. Blockade of AMPK with Compound C decreased hypertonicity-stimulated water permeability but did not alter phosphorylation of AQP2 at S256 and S261. AICAR, an AMPK stimulator, caused a transient increase in osmotic water permeability and increased phosphorylation of AQP2 at S256. When inner medullary tissue was treated with the PKC activator phorbol dibutyrate (PDBu), the AMPK activator metformin, or both, AQP2 phosphorylation at S261 was decreased with PDBu or metformin alone, but there was no additive effect on phosphorylation with PDBu and metformin together. In conclusion, hypertonicity regulates water reabsorption by activating PKC. Hypertonicity-stimulated water reabsorption by PKC may be related to the decrease in endocytosis of AQP2. AMPK activation promotes water reabsorption, but the mechanism remains to be determined. PKC and AMPK do not appear to act synergistically to regulate water reabsorption.

NFAT5 Has a Job in the Brain

Nuclear factor of activated T cells 5 (NFAT5) has recently been classified as a new member of the Rel family. In addition, there are 5 more well-defined members (NF-κB and NFAT1-4) in the Rel family, which participate in regulating the expression of immune and inflammatory response-related genes. NFAT5 was initially identified in renal medullary cells where it regulated the expression of osmoprotective-related genes during the osmotic response. Many studies have demonstrated that NFAT5 is highly expressed in the nuclei of neurons in fetal and adult brains. Additionally, its expression is approximately 10-fold higher in fetal brains. With the development of detection technologies (laser scanning confocal microscopy, transgene technology, etc.), recent studies suggest that NFAT5 is also expressed in glial cells and plays a more diverse functional role. This article aims to summarize the current knowledge regarding the expression of NFAT5, its regulation of activation, and varied biological functions in the brain.

Farnesoid X receptor is essential for the survival of renal medullary collecting duct cells under hypertonic stress

Hypertonicity in renal medulla is critical for the kidney to produce concentrated urine. Renal medullary cells have to survive high medullary osmolarity during antidiuresis. Previous study reported that farnesoid X receptor (FXR), a nuclear receptor transcription factor activated by endogenous bile acids, increases urine concentrating ability by up-regulating aquaporin 2 expression in medullary collecting duct cells (MCDs). However, whether FXR is also involved in the maintenance of cell survival of MCDs under dehydration condition and hypertonic stress remains largely unknown. In the present study, we demonstrate that 24-hours water restriction selectively up-regulated renal medullary expression of FXR with little MCD apoptosis in wild-type mice. In contrast, water deprivation caused a massive apoptosis of MCDs in both global FXR gene-deficient mice and collecting duct-specific FXR knockout mice. In vitro studies showed that hypertonicity significantly increased FXR and tonicity response enhancer binding protein (TonEBP) expression in mIMCD3 cell line and primary cultured MCDs. Activation and overexpression of FXR markedly increased cell viability and decreased cell apoptosis under hyperosmotic conditions. In addition, FXR can increase gene expression and nuclear translocation of TonEBP. We conclude that FXR protects MCDs from hypertonicity-induced cell injury very likely via increasing TonEBP expression and nuclear translocation. This study provides insights into the molecular mechanism by which FXR enhances urine concentration via maintaining cell viability of MCDs under hyperosmotic condition.

Involvement of AMP-activated Protein Kinase (AMPK) in Regulation of Cell Membrane Potential in a Gastric Cancer Cell Line

Membrane potential (V_mem) is a key bioelectric property of non-excitable cells that plays important roles in regulating cell proliferation. However, the regulation of V_mem itself remains largely unexplored. We found that, under nutrient starvation, during which cell division is inhibited, MKN45 gastric cancer cells were in a hyperpolarized state associated with a high intracellular chloride concentration. AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) activity increased, and expression of cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) decreased, in nutrient-starved cells. Furthermore, the increase in intracellular chloride concentration level and V_mem hyperpolarization in nutrient-starved cells was suppressed by inhibition of AMPK activity. Intracellular chloride concentrations and hyperpolarization increased after over-activation of AMPK using the specific activator AICAR or suppression of CFTR activity using specific inhibitor GlyH-101. Under these conditions, proliferation of MKN45 cells was inhibited. These results reveal that AMPK controls the dynamic change in V_mem by regulating CFTR and influencing the intracellular chloride concentration, which in turn influences cell-cycle progression. These findings offer new insights into the mechanisms underlying cell-cycle arrest regulated by AMPK and CFTR.

NF-κB-dependent upregulation of (pro)renin receptor mediates high-NaCl-induced apoptosis in mouse inner medullary collecting duct cells

(Pro)renin receptor (PRR), a component of the renin-angiotensin system, has emerged as a new regulator of collecting duct function. The present study was designed to investigate the role of PRR in high salt-induced apoptosis in cultured mouse inner medullary collecting duct cells, mIMCD-K2 cells. Exposure to high NaCl at 550 mosM/kgH₂O increased PRR protein abundance, as did exposure to mannitol, sodium gluconate, or choline chloride. This was accompanied by upregulation of the abundance of phosphorylated NF-κB p65 protein. NF-κB inhibition with QNZ, caffeic acid phenethyl ester, or small interfering RNA (siRNA)-mediated silencing of NF-κB p65 attenuated high-NaCl-induced PRR upregulation. Exposure to high salt for 24 h induced apoptosis, as assessed by immunoblotting and immunocytochemistry analysis of cleaved caspase-3 and flow cytometry analysis of the number of apoptotic cells. High-NaCl-induced apoptosis was attenuated by a PRR decoy inhibitor, PRO20, or siRNA-mediated silencing of NF-κB p65. These results show that induction of PRR expression by exposure to high NaCl occurs through activation of NF-κB, thus contributing to cell apoptosis.

Glucose-dependent regulation of pregnane X receptor is modulated by AMP-activated protein kinase

Pregnane X receptor (PXR) is a xenobiotic receptor that regulates the detoxification and clearance of drugs and foreign compounds from the liver. There has been mounting evidence of crosstalk between the drug metabolism pathway and the energy metabolism pathway, but little is known about this cross-regulation. To further delineate the energy metabolism and drug metabolism crosstalk in this study, we exposed HepG2 cells to varying glucose concentrations. We observed that PXR activity was induced under high-glucose conditions. This finding is consistent with previous clinical reports of increased drug clearance in patients with untreated diabetes. We demonstrated that AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) modulates PXR transcriptional activity and that pharmacologically manipulated AMPK activation exhibits an inverse relation to PXR activity. Activation of AMPK was shown to downregulate PXR activity and, consistent with that, potentiate the response of cells to the drug. Taken together, our results delineate a hitherto unreported axis of regulation that involves the energy status of the cell, PXR regulation, and drug sensitivity.

How do kinases contribute to tonicity-dependent regulation of the transcription factor NFAT5?

NFAT5 plays a critical role in maintaining the renal functions. Its dis-regulation in the kidney leads to or is associated with certain renal diseases or disorders, most notably the urinary concentration defect. Hypertonicity, which the kidney medulla is normally exposed to, activates NFAT5 through phosphorylation of a signaling molecule or NFAT5 itself. Hypotonicity inhibits NFAT5 through a similar mechanism. More than a dozen of protein and lipid kinases have been identified to contribute to tonicity-dependent regulation of NFAT5. Hypertonicity activates NFAT5 by increasing its nuclear localization and transactivating activity in the early phase and protein abundance in the late phase. The known mechanism for inhibition of NFAT5 by hypotonicity is a decrease of nuclear NFAT5. The present article reviews the effect of each kinase on NFAT5 nuclear localization, transactivation and protein abundance, and the relationship among these kinases, if known. Cyclosporine A and tacrolimus suppress immune reactions by inhibiting the phosphatase calcineurin-dependent activation of NFAT1. It is hoped that this review would stimulate the interest to seek explanations from the NFAT5 regulatory pathways for certain clinical presentations and to explore novel therapeutic approaches based on the pathways. On the basic science front, this review raises two interesting questions. The first one is how these kinases can specifically signal to NFAT5 in the context of hypertonicity or hypotonicity, because they also regulate other cellular activities and even opposite activities in some cases. The second one is why these many kinases, some of which might have redundant functions, are needed to regulate NFAT5 activity. This review reiterates the concept of signaling through cooperation. Cells need these kinases working in a coordinated way to provide the signaling specificity that is lacking in the individual one. Redundancy in regulation of NFAT5 is a critical strategy for cells to maintain robustness against hypertonic or hypotonic stress.

High-mobility group box 1 is involved in the development of benign prostatic hyperplasia with chronic prostatic inflammation

OBJECTIVE

The aims of this study were to explore the role of high-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) in benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) and to perform a preliminary investigation of the mechanisms underlying BPH.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

HMGB1 expression in 160 BPH cases was analyzed using immunohistochemistry. HMGB1 expression in primary prostate epithelial cells and the concentration of HMGB1 in the surrounding culture medium were detected by Western blotting and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, respectively. Cell proliferation was evaluated by the carboxyfluorescein succinimidyl ester (CFSE) dilution assay. Student's t test or a one- or two-way analysis of variance test, followed by Bonferroni post hoc analysis, were used to test differences between groups and time-course data.

RESULTS

HMGB1 expression was higher in BPH with prostatitis than in BPH alone and was positively correlated with prostate volume in BPH patients with prostatitis, but not in BPH patients without prostatitis. HMGB1 expression in primary prostate epithelial cells as well as its release into the extracellular environment increased when the cells were treated with the proinflammatory molecule lipopolysaccharide (LPS). In addition, HMGB1 overexpression promoted the proliferation of primary prostate epithelial cells under LPS stimulation, and this could be inhibited by the HMGB1 antagonist boxA.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings provide novel insights into the pathogenic role of HMGB1 in BPH with prostatitis, and suggest that HMGB1 is a potential biomarker and therapeutic target for BPH.

Osthole improves an accelerated focal segmental glomerulosclerosis model in the early stage by activating the Nrf2 antioxidant pathway and subsequently inhibiting NF-κB-mediated COX-2 expression and apoptosis

Inflammatory reactions and oxidative stress are implicated in the pathogenesis of focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS), a common chronic kidney disease with relatively poor prognosis and unsatisfactory treatment regimens. Previously, we showed that osthole, a coumarin compound isolated from the seeds of Cnidium monnieri, can inhibit reactive oxygen species generation, NF-κB activation, and cyclooxygenase-2 expression in lipopolysaccharide-activated macrophages. In this study, we further evaluated its renoprotective effect in a mouse model of accelerated FSGS (acFSGS), featuring early development of proteinuria, followed by impaired renal function, glomerular epithelial cell hyperplasia lesions (a sensitive sign that precedes the development of glomerular sclerosis), periglomerular inflammation, and glomerular hyalinosis/sclerosis. The results show that osthole significantly prevented the development of the acFSGS model in the treated group of mice. The mechanisms involved in the renoprotective effects of osthole on the acFSGS model were mainly a result of an activated Nrf2-mediated antioxidant pathway in the early stage (proteinuria and ischemic collapse of the glomeruli) of acFSGS, followed by a decrease in: (1) NF-κB activation and COX-2 expression as well as PGE2 production, (2) podocyte injury, and (3) apoptosis. Our data support that targeting the Nrf2 antioxidant pathway may justify osthole being established as a candidate renoprotective compound for FSGS.

Hepatic overexpression of ATP synthase β subunit activates PI3K/Akt pathway to ameliorate hyperglycemia of diabetic mice

ATP synthase β subunit (ATPSβ) had been previously shown to play an important role in controlling ATP synthesis in pancreatic β-cells. This study aimed to investigate the role of ATPSβ in regulation of hepatic ATP content and glucose metabolism in diabetic mice. ATPSβ expression and ATP content were both reduced in the livers of type 1 and type 2 diabetic mice. Hepatic overexpression of ATPSβ elevated cellular ATP content and ameliorated hyperglycemia of streptozocin-induced diabetic mice and db/db mice. ATPSβ overexpression increased phosphorylated Akt (pAkt) levels and reduced PEPCK and G6pase expression levels in the livers. Consistently, ATPSβ overexpression repressed hepatic glucose production in db/db mice. In cultured hepatocytes, ATPSβ overexpression increased intracellular and extracellular ATP content, elevated the cytosolic free calcium level, and activated Akt independent of insulin. The ATPSβ-induced increase in cytosolic free calcium and pAkt levels was attenuated by inhibition of P2 receptors. Notably, inhibition of calmodulin (CaM) completely abolished ATPSβ-induced Akt activation in liver cells. Inhibition of P2 receptors or CaM blocked ATPSβ-induced nuclear exclusion of forkhead box O1 in liver cells. In conclusion, a decrease in hepatic ATPSβ expression in the liver, leading to the attenuation of ATP-P2 receptor-CaM-Akt pathway, may play an important role in the progression of diabetes.

Metformin induces renal medullary interstitial cell apoptosis in type 2 diabetic mice

OBJECTIVE

Metformin is a first-line antidiabetic drug for type 2 diabetes (T2D) with a relatively good safety profile. Metformin activates AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), which is crucial in maintaining renal medullary function, with inappropriate AMPK activation facilitating renal medullary interstitial cells (RMICs) apoptosis under hypertonic challenge. The present study was to determine the effects of metformin on RMIC survival in both normal and T2D mice.

METHODS

Mice (C57BL/6, db/m, and db/db) were treated with 450 mg/kg metformin for 7 days and subjected to 24-h water restriction (=dehydration) before being killed. Cell apoptosis in the renal medulla was determined by the terminal deoxyribonucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP-digoxigenin nick end-labeling (TUNEL) assay. Cultured RMIC were treated with 10 mmol/L metformin in the presence or absence of hypertonic stress. Cell viability was determined and the underlying mechanisms were investigated.

RESULTS

Metformin induced significant apoptosis of RMIC in dehydrated normal mice and both hydrated and dehydrated T2D mice. Hypertonicity increased ATP production and inhibited AMPK phosphorylation in RMIC, which was attenuated by metformin. Metformin augmented hypertonicity-induced apoptosis of RMIC, suppressed the nuclear factor-κB/cyclo-oxygenase-2 pathway, reduced reactive oxygen species production and inhibited transcriptional activation of tonicity-responsive enhancer binding protein (TonEBP) and its downstream osmoprotective gene expression.

CONCLUSIONS

Metformin treatment is associated with increased RMIC apoptosis in both normally hydrated and dehydrated T2D mice. The results confirm AMPK as a critical factor involved in the maintenance of RMIC viability in T2D and raise safety concerns for metformin and other AMPK-activating antidiabetic drugs in dehydrated diabetic patients.

Regulation of ion channels and transporters by AMP-activated kinase (AMPK)

The energy-sensing AMP-activated kinase AMPK ensures survival of energy-depleted cells by stimulating ATP production and limiting ATP utilization. Both energy production and energy consumption are profoundly influenced by transport processes across the cell membane including channels, carriers and pumps. Accordingly, AMPK is a powerful regulator of transport across the cell membrane. AMPK regulates diverse K(+) channels, Na(+) channels, Ca(2+) release activated Ca(2+) channels, Cl(-) channels, gap junctional channels, glucose carriers, Na(+)/H(+)-exchanger, monocarboxylate-, phosphate-, creatine-, amino acid-, peptide- and osmolyte-transporters, Na(+)/Ca(2+)-exchanger, H(+)-ATPase and Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase. AMPK activates ubiquitin ligase Nedd4-2, which labels several plasma membrane proteins for degradation. AMPK further regulates transport proteins by inhibition of Rab GTPase activating protein (GAP) TBC1D1. It stimulates phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate 5-kinase PIKfyve and inhibits phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN) via glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK3β). Moreover, it stabilizes F-actin as well as downregulates transcription factor NF-κB. All those cellular effects serve to regulate transport proteins.

Long-term cultured mesenchymal stem cells frequently develop genomic mutations but do not undergo malignant transformation

Cultured human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells (hUC-MSCs) are being tested in several clinical trials and encouraging outcomes have been observed. To determine whether in vitro expansion influences the genomic stability of hUC-MSCs, we maintained nine hUC-MSC clones in long-term culture and comparatively analyzed them at early and late passages. All of the clones senesced in culture, exhibiting decreased telomerase activity and shortened telomeres. Two clones showed no DNA copy number variations (CNVs) at passage 30 (P30). Seven clones had ≥1 CNVs at P30 compared with P3, and one of these clones appeared trisomic chromosome 10 at the late passage. No tumor developed in immunodeficient mice injected with hUC-MSCs, regardless of whether the cells had CNVs at the late passage. mRNA-Seq analysis indicated that pathways of cell cycle control and DNA damage response were downregulated during in vitro culture in hUC-MSC clones that showed genomic instability, but the same pathways were upregulated in the clones with good genomic stability. These results demonstrated that hUC-MSCs can be cultured for many passages and attain a large number of cells, but most of the cultured hUC-MSCs develop genomic alterations. Although hUC-MSCs with genomic alterations do not undergo malignant transformation, periodic genomic monitoring and donor management focusing on genomic stability are recommended before these cells are used for clinical applications.

Effects of PGE2 EP3/EP4 receptors on bladder dysfunction in mice with experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis

To investigate the expression of four subtypes of PGE2 E-prostanoid (EP) receptors (EP1-EP4) and the effects of EP3/EP4 on bladder dysfunction in a new neurogenic bladder model induced by experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), the mouse model of EAE was induced using a previously established method, and bladder function in mice with different defined levels of neurological impairment was then examined, including micturition frequencies and voiding weight. Bladders were then harvested for analysis of EP receptor expression by Western blot. Activities of agonists/antagonists of EP3 and EP4 receptors as well as PGE2 were also evaluated at different stages of EAE. The results showed that EAE mice developed profound bladder dysfunction characterized by significantly increased micturition and significantly decreased urine output per micturition. EAE-induced upregulation of EP3 and EP4 receptors in the bladder was accompanied by bladder dysfunction. However, EAE had no significant effect on EP1 and EP2 receptors. Moreover, PGE2 and agonists/antagonists of EP3 and EP4 receptors significantly affected bladder dysfunction in EAE mice. Thus, we believe that EAE mice are useful for investigations of the neurogenic bladder. In addition, EP3 and EP4 receptors play a role in EAE-induced bladder dysfunction, providing us with a new target for the treatment of neurogenic bladders.

High NaCl-induced inhibition of PTG contributes to activation of NFAT5 through attenuation of the negative effect of SHP-1

Activation of the transcription factor NFAT5 by high NaCl involves changes in phosphorylation. By siRNA screening, we previously found that protein targeting to glycogen (PTG), a regulatory subunit of protein phosphatase1 (PP1), contributes to regulation of high NaCl-induced NFAT5 transcriptional activity. The present study addresses the mechanism involved. We find that high NaCl-induced inhibition of PTG elevates NFAT5 activity by increasing NFAT5 transactivating activity, protein abundance, and nuclear localization. PTG acts via a catalytic subunit PP1γ. PTG associates physically with PP1γ, and NaCl reduces both this association and remaining PTG-associated PP1γ activity. High NaCl-induced phosphorylation of p38, ERK, and SHP-1 contributes to activation of NFAT5. Knockdown of PTG does not affect phosphorylation of p38 or ERK. However, PTG and PP1γ bind to SHP-1, and knockdown of either PTG or PP1γ increases high NaCl-induced phosphorylation of SHP-1-S591, which inhibits SHP-1. Mutation of SHP-1-S591 to alanine, which cannot be phosphorylated, increases inhibition of NFAT5 by SHP-1. Thus high NaCl reduces the stimulatory effect of PTG and PP1γ on SHP-1, which in turn reduces the inhibitory effect of SHP-1 on NFAT5. Our findings add to the known functions of PTG, which was previously recognized only for its glycogenic activity.

FAM3A is a target gene of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma

BACKGROUND

To date, the biological function of FAM3A, the first member of FAM3 gene family, remains unknown. We aimed to investigate whether the expression of FAM3A in liver cells is regulated by peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs).

METHODS AND RESULTS

The transcriptional activity of human and mouse FAM3A gene promoters was determined by luciferase reporter assay system. PPARγ agonist rosiglitazone induced FAM3A expression in primary cultured mouse hepatocytes and human HepG2 cells. PPARγ antagonism blocked rosiglitazone-induced FAM3A expression, whereas PPARγ overexpression stimulated FAM3A expression in HepG2 cells. In contrast, PPARα agonist fenofibrate or PPARβ agonist GW0742 failed to affect FAM3A expression in HepG2 cells. The transcriptional activities of human and mouse FAM3A promoters were markedly stimulated by PPARγ activation, but not by PPARα and PPARβ activation. Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assay revealed a direct binding of PPARγ to the putative peroxisome proliferator response element (PPRE) located at -1258/-1246 in the human FAM3A promoter. Site-directed mutagenesis of this PPRE-like motif abolished PPARγ's stimulatory effect on the transcriptional activity of human FAM3A promoter. In vivo, oral rosiglitazone treatment upregulated FAM3A expression in the livers of C57BL/6 mice and db/db mice. Moreover, upregulation of FAM3A by PPARγ activation was correlated with increased level of phosphorylated Akt (pAkt) in liver cells.

CONCLUSIONS

FAM3A as a novel target gene of PPARγ. Upregulation of FAM3A by PPARγ activation is correlated with increased pAkt level in liver cells.

GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE

Upregulation of FAM3A might contribute to PPARγ's metabolic effects in the liver.

Regulation of Orai1/STIM1 by the kinases SGK1 and AMPK

STIM and Orai isoforms orchestrate store operated Ca2+ entry (SOCE) and thus cytosolic Ca2+ fluctuations following stimulation by hormones, growth factors and further mediators. Orai1 is a target of Nedd4-2, an ubiquitin ligase preparing several plasma membrane proteins for degradation. Phosphorylation of Nedd4-2 by the serum and glucocorticoid inducible kinase SGK1 leads to the binding of Nedd4-2 to the protein 14-3-3 thus preventing its interaction with Orai1. Nedd4-2 is activated by the energy sensing AMP activated kinase AMPK. Thus, SGK1 disrupts and AMPK fosters degradation of Orai1. New synthesis of both, Orai1 and STIM1, is stimulated by the transcription factor NF-κB (nuclear factor kappa B), which binds to the respective promoter regions of the genes encoding STIM1 and Orai1. SGK1 upregulates and AMPK presumably downregulates NF-κB and thus de novo synthesis of Orai1 and STIM1 proteins. The regulation by SGK1 links SOCE to the signaling of a wide variety of hormones and growth factors, the AMPK dependent regulation of Orai1 and STIM1 may serve to limit inadequate activation of SOCE following energy depletion, which is otherwise expected to activate SOCE by depletion of intracellular Ca2+ stores due to impairment of the ATP consuming sarco/endoplasmatic reticulum Ca2+ ATPase SERCA.

The outcome of renal ischemia-reperfusion injury is unchanged in AMPK-β1 deficient mice

Aim

Activation of the master energy-regulator AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) in the heart reduces the severity of ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI) but the role of AMPK in renal IRI is not known. The aim of this study was to determine whether activation of AMPK by acute renal ischemia influences the severity of renal IRI.

Methods

AMPK expression and activation and the severity of renal IRI was studied in mice lacking the AMPK β1 subunit and compared to wild type (WT) mice.

Results

Basal expression of activated AMPK, phosphorylayed at αThr¹⁷², was markedly reduced by 96% in AMPK-β1^−/− mice. Acute renal ischaemia caused a 3.2-fold increase in α1-AMPK activity and a 2.5-fold increase in α2-AMPK activity (P<0.001) that was associated with an increase in AMPK phosphorylation of the AMPK-α subunit at Thr¹⁷² and Ser⁴⁸⁵, and increased inhibitory phosphorylation of the AMPK substrate acetyl-CoA carboxylase. After acute renal ischemia AMPK activity was reduced by 66% in AMPK-β1^−/− mice compared with WT. There was no difference, however, in the severity of renal IRI at 24-hours between AMPK-β1^−/− and WT mice, as measured by serum urea and creatinine and histological injury score. In the heart, macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) released during IRI contributes to AMPK activation and protects from injury. In the kidney, however, no difference in AMPK activation by acute ischemia was observed between MIF^−/− and WT mice. Compared with the heart, expression of the MIF receptor CD74 was found to be reduced in the kidney.

Conclusion

The failure of AMPK activation to influence the outcome of IRI in the kidney contrasts with what is reported in the heart. This difference might be due to a lack of effect of MIF on AMPK activation and lower CD74 expression in the kidney.