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Angoa-Perez M, Kuhn DM. The pharmacology and neurotoxicology of synthetic cathinones. ADVANCES IN PHARMACOLOGY (SAN DIEGO, CALIF.) 2023; 99:61-82. [PMID: 38467489 DOI: 10.1016/bs.apha.2023.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/13/2024]
Abstract
The synthetic cathinones are man-made compounds derived from the naturally occurring drug cathinone, which is found in the khat plant. The drugs in this pharmacological class that will be the focus of this chapter include mephedrone, MDPV, methcathinone and methylone. These drugs are colloquially known as "bath salts". This misnomer suggests that these drugs are used for health improvement or that they have legitimate medical uses. The synthetic cathinones are dangerous drugs with powerful pharmacological effects that include high abuse potential, hyperthermia and hyperlocomotion. These drugs also share many of the pharmacological effects of the amphetamine class of drugs including methamphetamine, amphetamine and MDMA and therefore have high potential to cause damage to the central nervous system. The synthetic cathinones are frequently taken in combination with other psychoactive drugs such as alcohol, marijuana and the amphetamine-like stimulants, creating a situation where heightened pharmacological and neurotoxicological effects are likely to occur. Despite the structural features shared by the synthetic cathinones and amphetamine-like stimulants, including their actions at monoamine transporters and receptors, the effects of the synthetic cathinones do not always match those of the amphetamines. In particular, the synthetic cathinones are far less neurotoxic than their amphetamine counterparts, they produce a weaker hyperthermia, and they cause less glial activation. This chapter will briefly review the pharmacology and neurotoxicology of selected synthetic cathinones with the aim of delineating key areas of agreement and disagreement in the literature particularly as it relates to neurotoxicological outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariana Angoa-Perez
- Research and Development Service, John D. Dingell VA Medical Center, Detroit, MI, United States; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, United States
| | - Donald M Kuhn
- Research and Development Service, John D. Dingell VA Medical Center, Detroit, MI, United States; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, United States.
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Batistic FK, Rhumorbarbe D, Lefrancois E, Tettey J, Raithelhuber M, Rossy Q, Morelato M. Analysis of Google Trends to monitor new psychoactive substance. Is there an added value? Forensic Sci Int 2021; 326:110918. [PMID: 34325112 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2021.110918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2021] [Revised: 07/16/2021] [Accepted: 07/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The past decade has seen an increase in the development and availability of a broad category of drugs, known as new psychoactive substances (NPS). NPS are challenging for public health authorities, therefore the two major drug monitoring bodies - the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) and the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) - have implemented the EU Early Warning System (EWS) and Early Warning Advisory (EWA), respectively. While these monitoring systems are informative, it is difficult to keep up with the constant and rapid developmental rate of NPS. The EMCDDA has recognised the need for an alternative and technologically derived early warning system. The aim of this research is to determine whether Google Trends and drug discussion forum data can be used to complement early warning systems for NPS. Forty-eight substances were used in this study and classed into groups based on their chemical structure, following the UNODC classification system. Google Trends data (time range: 2004-2019) and drug forum data (time range: 2003-2018) were extracted for each substance and visual trend profiles were created for class groups as well as individual substances. Analysis was conducted to determine when a substance first appeared on Google Trends and a drug discussion forum as well as their trends over time. This date of first appearance was then compared to the date the substance was first reported to UNODC. Of the three data sources utilised, substances were most likely to appear on Google Trends first. Amongst the different classes of NPS, discernible trends ('block', 'successive', and 'generational' trends) were observed. These trends reflect the evolution of the manufacture of substances or generations of substances that has been observed in the literature. For example, in the synthetic cannabinoids' category, a generational trend is observed that corresponds to the different generations of synthetic cannabinoids. When comparing Google Trends and Drugs-Forum directly, the order of appearance and duration of presence for substances aligns accurately for most classes. Google Trends showed the emergence, persistence, or transient nature of substances, which could direct the focus of law enforcement, health organisation and laboratory resources towards a limited number of substances. When one considers the reliance of individual information seeking on the Web as well as the prominence of NPS on the Web, it becomes clear that Google Trends and drug discussion forums could be used as a complement to current early warning systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frana-Katica Batistic
- Centre for Forensic Science, School of Mathematical and Physical Sciences, University of Technology Sydney, Australia.
| | - Damien Rhumorbarbe
- Ecole des Sciences Criminelles, Faculty of Law, Criminal Justice and Public Administration, University of Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - Elodie Lefrancois
- Ecole des Sciences Criminelles, Faculty of Law, Criminal Justice and Public Administration, University of Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - Justice Tettey
- Laboratory and Scientific Section, Division for Policy Analysis and Public Affairs, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Vienna International Centre, Vienna, Austria.
| | - Martin Raithelhuber
- Laboratory and Scientific Section, Division for Policy Analysis and Public Affairs, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Vienna International Centre, Vienna, Austria.
| | - Quentin Rossy
- Ecole des Sciences Criminelles, Faculty of Law, Criminal Justice and Public Administration, University of Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - Marie Morelato
- Centre for Forensic Science, School of Mathematical and Physical Sciences, University of Technology Sydney, Australia.
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Riley AL, Nelson KH, To P, López-Arnau R, Xu P, Wang D, Wang Y, Shen HW, Kuhn DM, Angoa-Perez M, Anneken JH, Muskiewicz D, Hall FS. Abuse potential and toxicity of the synthetic cathinones (i.e., “Bath salts”). Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2020; 110:150-173. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.07.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2018] [Revised: 06/14/2018] [Accepted: 07/24/2018] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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Worob A, Wenthur C. DARK Classics in Chemical Neuroscience: Synthetic Cannabinoids (Spice/K2). ACS Chem Neurosci 2019; 11:3881-3892. [PMID: 31799831 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.9b00586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
This Review covers the background, pharmacology, adverse effects, synthesis, pharmacokinetics, metabolism, and history of synthetic cannabinoid compounds. Synthetic cannabinoids are a class of novel psychoactive substances that act as agonists at cannabinoid receptors. This class of compounds is structurally diverse and rapidly changing, with multiple generations of molecules having been developed in the past decade. The structural diversity of synthetic cannabinoids is supported by the breadth of chemical space available for exploitation by clandestine chemists and incentivized by attempts to remain ahead of legal pressures. As a class, synthetic cannabinoid products have a more serious adverse effect profile than that of traditional phytocannabinoids, including notable risks of lethality, as well as a history of dangerous adulteration. Most synthetic cannabinoids are rapidly metabolized to active species with prolonged residence times and peripheral tissue distribution, and analytical confirmation of use of these compounds remains challenging. Overall, the emergence of synthetic cannabinoids serves as a noteworthy example of the pressing public health challenges associated with the increasing development of easily synthesized, structurally flexible, highly potent, psychoactive drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam Worob
- Divisions of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Pharmacy Practice, School of Pharmacy, University of Wisconsin—Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53705, United States
| | - Cody Wenthur
- Divisions of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Pharmacy Practice, School of Pharmacy, University of Wisconsin—Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53705, United States
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De-Giorgio F, Bilel S, Ossato A, Tirri M, Arfè R, Foti F, Serpelloni G, Frisoni P, Neri M, Marti M. Reply to "MDPV-induced aggression in humans not established". Int J Legal Med 2019; 134:263-265. [PMID: 31773317 DOI: 10.1007/s00414-019-02176-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2019] [Accepted: 10/07/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Fabio De-Giorgio
- Institute of Public Health, Section of Legal Medicine, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, L.go F. Vito 1, 00168, Rome, Italy
| | - Sabrine Bilel
- Department of Life Sciences and Biotechnology (SVeB), University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Andrea Ossato
- Institute of Public Health, Section of Legal Medicine, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, L.go F. Vito 1, 00168, Rome, Italy
| | - Micaela Tirri
- Collaborative Center for the Italian National Early Warning System, Department of Anti-Drug Policies, Presidency of the Council of Ministers, Rome, Italy
| | - Raffaella Arfè
- Institute of Public Health, Section of Legal Medicine, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, L.go F. Vito 1, 00168, Rome, Italy.,Department of Morphology, Experimental Medicine and Surgery, Section of Legal Medicine and LTTA Centre, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Federica Foti
- Institute of Public Health, Section of Legal Medicine, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, L.go F. Vito 1, 00168, Rome, Italy
| | - Giovanni Serpelloni
- Department of Psychiatry, College of Medicine, Drug Policy Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Paolo Frisoni
- Department of Morphology, Experimental Medicine and Surgery, Section of Legal Medicine and LTTA Centre, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Margherita Neri
- Department of Morphology, Experimental Medicine and Surgery, Section of Legal Medicine and LTTA Centre, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Matteo Marti
- Department of Morphology, Experimental Medicine and Surgery, Section of Legal Medicine and LTTA Centre, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy. .,Collaborative Center for the Italian National Early Warning System, Department of Anti-Drug Policies, Presidency of the Council of Ministers, Rome, Italy.
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Marusich JA, Gay EA, Blough BE. Analysis of neurotransmitter levels in addiction-related brain regions during synthetic cathinone self-administration in male Sprague-Dawley rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2019; 236:903-914. [PMID: 30191259 PMCID: PMC6401347 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-018-5011-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2018] [Accepted: 08/19/2018] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Synthetic cathinones are used as stimulants of abuse. Different stimulants may induce distinct rates of disease progression, yielding neurochemical changes that may vary across brain regions or neurotransmitter systems. OBJECTIVES This research sought to behaviorally and chemically differentiate stages of synthetic cathinone abuse through rodent self-administration and measurement of the neurotransmitter profile in multiple brain regions. METHODS Male rats were trained to self-administer α-PVP, mephedrone (4MMC), or saline. Half of each drug group stopped self-administering after autoshaping; the other half self-administered for another 21 days. Brain tissue from amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus, PFC, striatum, and thalamus was profiled with electrochemical detection to assess neurotransmitter levels. RESULTS During autoshaping, the majority of infusions were delivered noncontingently. In the self-administration phase, rats responded more for α-PVP and 4MMC than for saline, demonstrating that both synthetic cathinones were reinforcing. Longer durations of exposure elevated 5-HIAA in hypothalamus, PFC, and hippocampus, indicating that learning may produce changes in addiction-related brain regions. Both synthetic cathinones decreased norepinephrine in hippocampus, while α-PVP decreased glutamate in hippocampus and PFC, and 4MMC decreased glutamate in thalamus. Furthermore, α-PVP increased dopaminergic metabolites in striatum, whereas 4MMC decreased serotonin in the amygdala, hippocampus, and PFC. Interestingly, neither synthetic cathinone affected dopamine levels despite their functional effects on the dopaminergic system. CONCLUSIONS In summary, the neurotransmitter changes observed here suggest that synthetic cathinone use likely produces sequential neurochemical changes during the transition from use to abuse. Consequently, treatment need may differ depending on the progression of synthetic cathinone abuse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie A Marusich
- Center for Drug Discovery, RTI International, 3040 Cornwallis Rd, 136 Hermann, Research Triangle Park, NC, 27709, USA.
| | - Elaine A Gay
- Center for Drug Discovery, RTI International, 3040 Cornwallis Rd, 136 Hermann, Research Triangle Park, NC, 27709, USA
| | - Bruce E Blough
- Center for Drug Discovery, RTI International, 3040 Cornwallis Rd, 136 Hermann, Research Triangle Park, NC, 27709, USA
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Nóbrega L, Dinis-Oliveira RJ. The synthetic cathinone α-pyrrolidinovalerophenone (α-PVP): pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic clinical and forensic aspects. Drug Metab Rev 2018. [PMID: 29540067 DOI: 10.1080/03602532.2018.1448867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
New psychoactive substances (NPS), often referred as 'legal highs' or 'designer drugs', are derivatives and analogs of existing psychoactive drugs that are introduced in the recreational market to circumvent existing legislation on drugs of abuse. This work aims to review the state-of-the-art regarding chemical, molecular pharmacology, and in vitro and in vivo data on toxicokinetics of the potent synthetic cathinone α-pyrrolidinovalerophenone (α-PVP or flakka or zombie drug). Chemical, pharmacological, toxicological, and clinical effects of α-PVP were searched in PubMed (U.S. National Library of Medicine) and governmental websites without limitation of the period. α-PVP is a wide spread and easy to get special type of synthetic cathinone with seemingly powerful cocaine-like stimulant effects, high brain penetration, high liability for abuse and with increased risk of adverse effects such as tachycardia, agitation, hypertension, hallucinations, delirium, mydriasis, self-injury, aggressive behavior, and suicidal ideations. α-PVP undergoes extensive metabolism via different pathways and the α-PVP itself or its metabolites β-hydroxy-α-PVP and α-PVP lactam represent the main targets for toxicological analysis in urine. There is a limited knowledge regarding the short- and long-term effects of α-PVP and metabolites, and pharmacogenetic influence, hence further clinical and forensic toxicological studies are required. Moreover, since α-PVP cannot be detected with classic routine analysis procedures, statements on the frequency of their consumption cannot be made.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leandro Nóbrega
- a Department of Public Health, Forensic Sciences, and Medical Education, Faculty of Medicine , University of Porto , Porto , Portugal
| | - Ricardo Jorge Dinis-Oliveira
- a Department of Public Health, Forensic Sciences, and Medical Education, Faculty of Medicine , University of Porto , Porto , Portugal.,b UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy , University of Porto , Porto , Portugal.,c Department of Sciences, IINFACTS - Institute of Research and Advanced Training in Health Sciences and Technologies , University Institute of Health Sciences (IUCS), CESPU, CRL , Gandra , Portugal
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Hataoka K, Kaizaki-Mitsumoto A, Numazawa S. Alpha-PVP induces the rewarding effect via activating dopaminergic neuron. J Toxicol Sci 2018; 42:539-543. [PMID: 28904288 DOI: 10.2131/jts.42.539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
A synthetic cathinone, 1-phenyl-2-(1-pyrrolidinyl)-1-pentanone (α-PVP), was occasionally found in the "bath salt" type of designer drugs, as an active ingredient. It has been reported that drivers who consumed α-PVP were in an excited state and incapable of controlling their behavior, causing traffic accidents. Despite its acute excitatory effects, there is no information on the psychological dependency elicited by α-PVP use. The purpose of the present study was to clarify whether the reward pathway is activated with repeated doses of α-PVP in experimental animals. Treatment of male C57BL/6j mice with α-PVP (25 mg/kg, i.p.), once a day, for 3 days significantly increased the conditioned place preference scores. Therefore, repeated doses of α-PVP were shown to induce palatability in mice. α-PVP increases extracellular dopamine levels in the nucleus accumbens shell immediately after administration. The number of cells immunopositive for phosphorylated cAMP-regulatory element binding protein (CREB) was significantly increased in the α-PVP-treated mice in our study. These results indicate that the administration of α-PVP activates the phosphorylation of CREB in the nucleus accumbens shell. Our results suggest that α-PVP stimulates the reward pathway by increasing the extracellular dopamine levels and CREB phosphorylation in the nucleus accumbens shell, eventually causing positive reinforcement in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyoko Hataoka
- Division of Toxicology, Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutics, Showa University School of Pharmacy
| | - Asuka Kaizaki-Mitsumoto
- Division of Toxicology, Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutics, Showa University School of Pharmacy
| | - Satoshi Numazawa
- Division of Toxicology, Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutics, Showa University School of Pharmacy
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Marusich JA, Lefever TW, Blough BE, Thomas BF, Wiley JL. Pharmacological effects of methamphetamine and alpha-PVP vapor and injection. Neurotoxicology 2016; 55:83-91. [PMID: 27237056 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2016.05.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2016] [Revised: 05/24/2016] [Accepted: 05/25/2016] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Vaporizing drugs in e-cigarettes is becoming a common method of administration for synthetic cathinones and classical stimulants. Heating during vaporization can expose the user to a cocktail of parent compound and thermolytic degradants, which could lead to different toxicological and pharmacological effects compared to ingesting the parent compound alone via injection or nasal inhalation. This study examined the in vivo toxicological and pharmacological effects of vaporized and injected methamphetamine (METH) and α-pyrrolidinopentiophenone (α-PVP). Male and female ICR mice were administered METH or α-PVP through vapor or i.p. injection. Dose-effect curves were determined for locomotor activity and a functional observational battery (FOB). METH and α-PVP vapor were also evaluated for place preference in male mice. Vapor exposure and injection led to more similarities than differences in toxicological and pharmacological effects. In the FOB, both routes of administration produced typical stimulant effects, and injection also increased some bizarre behaviors (e.g. licking, teeth chattering, darting). Both METH and α-PVP vapor exposure produced conditioned place preference. The two routes of administration had comparable efficacy in locomotor activation, with vapor producing longer lasting effects than injection. Females showed greater METH-induced locomotor activity, and greater incidence of a few somatic signs in the FOB than males. These results explore the toxicology of stimulant vapor inhalation in mice using an e-cigarette device. Despite the current technological and methodological difficulties, studying drug vapor promises to allow determination of toxicological effects of thermolytic products and flavor additives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie A Marusich
- Center for Drug Discovery, RTI International, 3040 Cornwallis Rd., Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA.
| | - Timothy W Lefever
- Center for Drug Discovery, RTI International, 3040 Cornwallis Rd., Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Bruce E Blough
- Center for Drug Discovery, RTI International, 3040 Cornwallis Rd., Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Brian F Thomas
- Center for Drug Discovery, RTI International, 3040 Cornwallis Rd., Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Jenny L Wiley
- Center for Drug Discovery, RTI International, 3040 Cornwallis Rd., Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
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