Niosome-loaded antifungal drugs as an effective nanocarrier system: A mini review

Niosome as a promising tool for increasing the effectiveness of anti-inflammatory compounds

Niosomes are drug delivery systems with widespread applications in pharmaceutical research and the cosmetic industry. Niosomes are vesicles of one or more bilayers made of non-ionic surfactants, cholesterol, and charge inducers. Because of their bilayer characteristics, similar to liposomes, niosomes can be loaded with lipophilic and hydrophilic cargos. Therefore, they are more stable and cheaper in preparation than liposomes. They can be classified into four categories according to their sizes and structures, namely small unilamellar vesicles (SUVs), large unilamellar vesicles (LUVs,), multilamellar vesicles (MLVs), and multivesicular vesicles (MVVs). There are many methods for niosome preparation, such as thin-film hydration, solvent injection, and heating method. The current study focuses on the preparation methods and pharmacological effects of niosomes loaded with natural and chemical anti-inflammatory compounds in kinds of literature during the past decade. We found that most research was carried out to load anti-inflammatory agents like non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) into niosome vesicles. The studies revealed that niosomes could improve anti-inflammatory agents' physicochemical properties, including solubility, cellular uptake, stability, encapsulation, drug release and liberation, efficiency, and oral bioavailability or topical absorption. See also the graphical abstract(Fig. 1).

Nanoformulations Insights: A Novel Paradigm for Antifungal Therapies and Future Perspectives

Currently, fungal infections are becoming more prevalent worldwide. Subsequently, many antifungal agents are available to cure diseases like pemphigus, athlete's foot, acne, psoriasis, hyperpigmentation, albinism, and skin cancer. Still, they fall short due to pitfalls in physiochemical properties. Conventional medications like lotion, creams, ointments, poultices, and gels are available for antifungal therapy but present many shortcomings. They are associated with drug retention and poor penetration problems, resulting in drug resistance, hypersensitivity, and diminished efficacy. On the contrary, nanoformulations have gained tremendous potential in overcoming the drawbacks of conventional delivery. Furthermore, the potential breakthroughs of nanoformulations are site-specific targeting. It has improved bioavailability, patient-tailored approach, reduced drug retention and hypersensitivity, and improved skin penetration. Nowadays, nanoformulations are gaining popularity for antifungal therapy against superficial skin infections. Nanoformulations-based liposomes, niosomes, nanosponges, solid lipid nanoparticles, and potential applications have been explored for antifungal therapy due to enhanced activity and reduced toxicity. Researchers are now more focused on developing patient-oriented target-based nano delivery to cover the lacunas of conventional treatment with higher immune stimulatory effects. Future direction involves the construction of novel nanotherapeutic devices, nanorobotics, and robust methods. In addition, for the preparations of nanoformulations for clinical studies, animal modeling solves the problems of antifungal therapy. This review describes insights into various superficial fungal skin infections and their potential applications, nanocarrier-based drug delivery, and mechanism of action. In addition, it focuses on regulatory considerations, pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic studies, clinical trials, patents, challenges, and future inputs for researchers to improve antifungal therapy.

Niosome as an Effective Nanoscale Solution for the Treatment of Microbial Infections

Numerous disorders go untreated owing to a lack of a suitable drug delivery technology or an appropriate therapeutic moiety, particularly when toxicities and side effects are a major concern. Treatment options for microbiological infections are not fulfilled owing to significant adverse effects or extended therapeutic options. Advanced therapy options, such as active targeting, may be preferable to traditional ways of treating infectious diseases. Niosomes can be defined as microscopic lamellar molecules formed by a mixture of cholesterol, nonionic surfactants (alkyl or dialkyl polyglycerol ethers), and sometimes charge-inducing agents. These molecules comprise both hydrophilic and hydrophobic moieties of varying solubilities. In this review, several pathogenic microbes such as Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Plasmodium, Leishmania, and Candida spp. have been evaluated. Also, the development of a proper niosomal formulation for the required application was discussed. This review also reviews that an optimal formulation is dependent on several aspects, including the choice of nonionic surfactant, fabrication process, and fabrication parameters. Finally, this review will give information on the effectiveness of niosomes in treating acute microbial infections, the mechanism of action of niosomes in combating microbial pathogens, and the advantages of using niosomes over other treatment modalities.

Fabrication, Characterization and In Planta Uptake of Engineered Surfactant Nanovesicles for the Delivery of the Biostimulant Sodium Copper Chlorophyllin

Effective delivery of agrochemicals requires control over bioactive release kinetics coupled with effective penetration of the bioactive into plants. Herein, we demonstrate the fabrication of hybrid nanovesicles based on sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate (SDBS) and cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) for enabling effective delivery of the biostimulant sodium copper chlorophyllin (Cu-chl) into plants. SDBS-CTAB nanovesicles exhibited a particle size of 107 nm with a well-defined spherical morphology, while modified formulations that included small fractions of the unsaturated dopant Span 80 yielded larger nanovesicles that were softer and more irregular in shape. All nanovesicles maintained high colloidal stability over >4 weeks and enabled sustained Cu-chl release, with the incorporation of Span 80 into the membranes enabling controllable acceleration of the release rate. Nanovesicle encapsulation improved the photostability of Cu-chl bioactive 3-4 × relative to that of free Cu-chl and enabled significant penetration of Cu-chl into the plant root without inducing any significant phytotoxicity.

Ion-Triggered In Situ Gelling Intranasal Spray of Dronedarone Hydrochloride Nanocarriers: In Vitro Optimization and In Vivo Pharmacokinetic Appraisal

The current study aims to develop niosomal nanocarriers for intranasal delivery of dronedarone hydrochloride to ameliorate its limited bioavailability. Niosomes were prepared by ethanol injection method and optimized using 3² full factorial experimental design. Both Span® type (X1) and Span®: cholesterol ratio (X2) were set as independent variables. Vesicle size (Y1), polydispersity index (Y2), zeta potential (Y3), and entrapment efficiency (Y4) were set as responses. The optimal formula was further incorporated into an ion-sensitive in situ gelling polymer for intranasal delivery. Optimal formula (N7), which is composed of Span® 80: cholesterol (1:1), was of the least vesicle size (121.27 ± 13.31 nm), least polydispersity index (0.43 ± 0.073), highest zeta potential (-22.23 ± 2.84 mV) and highest entrapment efficiency (73.44 ± 2.8%). About 75.86% and 60.29% of dronedarone hydrochloride were released from N7 dispersion and in situ gel, respectively, within 12 h, compared to only 13.3% released from a drug-free suspension. In vivo pharmacokinetic study on male New Zealand rabbits resulted in significantly higher Cmax, AUC0-72, and AUC0-∞ of intranasal niosomal in situ gel compared to oral suspension. Almost twofold amplification of relative bioavailability was obtained after intranasal administration of niosomal in situ gel (195.7%) compared to oral suspension.

Poly-(lactic-co-glycolic) Acid Nanoparticles Entrapping Pterostilbene for Targeting Aspergillus Section Nigri

Poly-(lactic-co-glycolic) acid (PLGA) is a biodegradable, biosafe, and biocompatible copolymer. The Aspergillus section Nigri causes otomycosis localized in the external auditory canal. In this research, Aspergillus brasiliensis, a species belonging to the Nigri section, was tested. Coumarin 6 and pterostilbene loaded in poly-(lactic-co-glycolic) acid nanoparticles (PLGA-coumarin6-NPs and PLGA-PTB-NPs) were tested for fungal cell uptake and antifungal ability against A. brasiliensis biofilm, respectively. Moreover, the activity of PLGA-PTB-NPs in inhibiting the A. brasiliensis infection was tested using Galleria mellonella larvae. The results showed a fluorescence signal, after 50 nm PLGA-coumarin6-NPs treatment, inside A. brasiliensis hyphae and along the entire thickness of the biofilm matrix, which was indicative of an efficient NP uptake. Regarding antifungal activity, a reduction in A. brasiliensis biofilm formation and mature biofilm with PLGA-PTB-NPs has been demonstrated. Moreover, in vivo experiments showed a significant reduction in mortality of infected larvae after injection of PLGA-PTB-NPs compared to free PTB at the same concentration. In conclusion, the PLGA-NPs system can increase the bioavailability of PTB in Aspergillus section Nigri biofilm by overcoming the biofilm matrix barrier and delivering PTB to fungal cells.

Harnessing Intranasal Delivery Systems of Sumatriptan for the Treatment of Migraine

Sumatriptan (ST) is a commonly prescribed drug for treating migraine. The efficiency of several routes of ST administration has been investigated. Recently, the intranasal route with different delivery systems has gained interest owing to its fast-acting and effectiveness. The present study is aimed at reviewing the available studies on novel delivery systems for intranasal ST administration. The oral route of ST administration is common but complicated with some problems. Gastroparesis in patients with migraine may reduce the absorption and effectiveness of ST upon oral use. Furthermore, the gastrointestinal (GI) system and hepatic metabolism can alter the pharmacokinetics and clinical effects of ST. The bioavailability of conventional nasal liquids is low due to the deposition of a large fraction of the delivered dose of a drug in the nasal cavity. Several delivery systems have been utilized in a wide range of preclinical and clinical studies to enhance the bioavailability of ST. The beneficial effects of the dry nasal powder of ST (AVP-825) have been proven in clinical studies. Moreover, other delivery systems based on microemulsions, microspheres, and nanoparticles have been introduced, and their higher bioavailability and efficacy were demonstrated in preclinical studies. Based on the extant findings, harnessing novel delivery systems can improve the bioavailability of ST and enhance its effectiveness against migraine attacks. However, further clinical studies are needed to approve the safety and efficacy of employing such systems in humans.

Multifunctional Parachute-like Nanomotors for Enhanced Skin Penetration and Synergistic Antifungal Therapy

Fungal infections in skin are extremely stubborn and seriously threaten human health. In the process of antifungal treatment, it is a huge challenge that the stratum corneum of the skin and fungal biofilms form the drug transport barrier. Herein, a near-infrared (NIR) laser-propelled parachute-like nanomotor loaded with miconazole nitrate (PNM-MN) is fabricated to enhance transdermal drug delivery for synergistic antifungal therapy. Due to asymmetrically spatial distribution, PNM can generate a thermal gradient under NIR laser irradiation, thereby forming effective self-thermophoretic propulsion. The self-propulsion and photothermal effect of PNM play a major role in promoting fungal uptake and biofilm adhesion. Moreover, under laser irradiation, PNM-MN can obliterate plankton Candida albicans and mature biofilms by combining pharmacological therapy and photothermal therapy. More importantly, the drug effectively penetrated the skin to reach the infected site using the nanomotor with NIR laser irradiation. Moreover, PNM-MN with a NIR laser can eradicate fungal infections caused by C. albicans and facilitate the abscess ablation, showing a therapeutic effect in vivo better than that of PNM with a NIR laser or free MN groups, with negligible histological toxicity. Taken together, NIR laser-propelled PNM-MN, as an antifungal nanoagent, provides a promising strategy for transdermal delivery and antifungal therapy.

A nanoemulsion-based nanogel of Citrus limon essential oil with leishmanicidal activity against Leishmania tropica and Leishmania major

Cutaneous leishmaniasis is one of the diseases that severely affects human skin. Nanogels are the well-known formulation for topical drug delivery due to easy usage, high loading capacity, and physical and chemical stabilities. In this study, the toxicity effect of three essential oils, including Mentha piperita, Anethum graveolens, and Citrus limon (CLEO), was evaluated against Leishmania major and Leishmania tropica. Ingredients of CLEO as the most potent essential oil were identified using GC-MS analysis. The five major components were limonene (61.83%), sabinene (16.99%), trans-limonene oxide (3.08%), cis-limonene oxide (2.27%), and 1,2-cyclohexane diol, 1-methyl-4-(1-methylethenyl) (1.50%). The nanogel of CLEO (CLNgel) was prepared by the addition of carbomer 940 (1% w/v) to the prepared nanoemulsion with a droplet size of 146 ± 12 nm. The viscosity of CLNgel was fitted with a regression of non-Newtonian materials, Carreau-Yasuda. Interestingly, CLNgel at a concentration of 80 µg/mL reduced the viability of both species to 0%. Therefore, the prepared prototype can/could/would be used as an excellent nanoformulation for in vivo studies.

Solid-lipid nanoparticles (SLN)s containing Zataria multiflora essential oil with no-cytotoxicity and potent repellent activity against Anopheles stephensi

Malaria is still a global health concern with more than 400,000 death annually. Personal protection using mosquitoes' repellent is an effective prevention strategy, especially in endemic areas. The toxic effects of synthetics repellents and their adverse effects on fabricated goods have made the development of green repellent critical. In this study, ingredients of Zataria multiflora essential oil (ZMEO) were identified using GC-MS analysis. Solid-lipid nanoparticles containing ZMEO (1%) were prepared (SLN-ZMEO) using the high-pressure homogenizer method. The repellent activity of ZMEO and SLN-ZMEO was investigated using Klun and Debboun method and compared together. Besides, their cytotoxicity on a human skin normal cell line (HFFF2) was evaluated. Five major components of ZMEO were carvacrol (27.05%), thymol (26.452%), γ-terpinene (15.144%), o-cymene (13.584%), and α-pinene (9.483%). The SLN-ZMEO showed a spherical shape with a particle size of 134 ± 7 nm. Moreover, their polydispersity index (PDI), zeta potential and entrapment efficiency were determined as 0.24 ± 0.1, - 9.82 ± 0.95 mV and 64.6 ± 3.8%, respectively. Interestingly, the protection time of nanoformulation (93 ± 5 min) was three times longer than that of the non-formulated essential oil (29 ± 2 min). Interestingly, both samples did not show cytotoxicity on HFFF2. Therefore, the prepared nanoformulation can be used as a green and potent repellent.

Nanoliposome-loaded antifungal drugs for dermal administration: A review

Cutaneous fungal infections are the fourth most common health problem, which involves approximately one billion people worldwide. Drug delivery to the skin seems to be the best choice for superficial fungal infections. Topical formulations can release a sufficient amount of drug in therapeutical concentrations and permeate higher layers of the skin like the stratum corneum. As the outermost layer of the epidermis, the stratum corneum prevents the drug from penetrating the skin. Liposomes, especially nanosized as topical drug delivery systems to the skin, can show various functions depending on their size, lipids and cholesterol components, the percent of ingredients, lamellarity, and surface charge. Nanoliposomes can increase permeation through the stratum corneum, decrease systemic effects with their localizing actions, and overcome many dermal drug delivery obstacles. Antifungal drugs, such as croconazole, econazole, fluconazole, ketoconazole, terbinafine hydrochloride, tolnaftate, and miconazole entrapped in liposomes have indicated improved skin penetration and localizing effects. According to the literature review summarized in this paper, many studies have identified liposomes as a powerful carrier for topical antifungal drug delivery to the skin. However, a few studies introduced new generations of liposomes like ethosomes and transfersomes. This paper was conducted on almost all liposomal studies of antifungal drugs with dermal application.

Evaluation of Natural Bioactive-Derived Punicalagin Niosomes in Skin-Aging Processes Accelerated by Oxidant and Ultraviolet Radiation

INTRODUCTION

Skin aging is a normal process that might be accelerated or delayed by altering the balance between antioxidants and free radicals due to increase in the exposure to reactive oxygen species (ROS) into skin cells via UV radiation. Antioxidants can neutralize the harmful effects of ROS, and secondary plant metabolites might help protect against UV radiation.

METHODS

In this study, punicalagin was extracted from pomegranate, and concentrations of total polyphenolics and flavonoids were determined, and antioxidant activities were measured. Punicalagin was loaded onto niosomes, and its morphology and release were studied. An in vitro study was performed on human fibroblast cell line HFB4 cells with aging induced by H₂O₂ and UV radiation. Cell cycle arrest was studied, and different genes (MMP3, Col1A1, Timp3, and TERT) involved in the skin aging process were selected to measure punicalagin's effect.

RESULTS

Punicalagin succeeded in reducing the growth arrest of HFB4 cells, activated production of the Col1A1 and Timp3 genes, maintained collagen level, and lowered MMP3. Punicalagin increased human TERT concentration in skin cells.

DISCUSSION

Punicalagin is promising as a natural antioxidant to protect human skin from aging.

Prospective Nanotechnology-Based Strategies for Enhanced Intra- and Transdermal Delivery of Antifungal Drugs

Topical therapy of superficial fungal infections allows the prevention of systemic side effects and provides drug targeting at the site of disease. However, an appropriate drug concentration in these sites should be provided to ensure the efficacy of such local treatment. The enhancement of intra- and transdermal penetration and accumulation of antifungal drugs is an important aspect here. The present overview is focused on novel nano-based formulations served to improve antimycotic penetration through the skin. Furthermore, it summarizes various approaches towards the stimulation of drug penetration through and into the stratum corneum and hair follicles, which are considered to be promising for the future improvement of superficial antifungal therapy as providing the drug localization and prolonged storage property at the targeted area.

The Efficacy of Cholesterol-Based Carriers in Drug Delivery

Several researchers have reported the use of cholesterol-based carriers in drug delivery. The presence of cholesterol in cell membranes and its wide distribution in the body has led to it being used in preparing carriers for the delivery of a variety of therapeutic agents such as anticancer, antimalarials and antivirals. These cholesterol-based carriers were designed as micelles, nanoparticles, copolymers, liposomes, etc. and their routes of administration include oral, intravenous and transdermal. The biocompatibility, good bioavailability and biological activity of cholesterol-based carriers make them potent prodrugs. Several in vitro and in vivo studies revealed cholesterol-based carriers potentials in delivering bioactive agents. In this manuscript, a critical review of the efficacy of cholesterol-based carriers is reported.

Antibacterial potential of essential oils of Zataria multiflora and Mentha piperita, micro- and nano-formulated forms

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Plant-derived essential oils (EOs) shave many usages in health and medicine, such as antibacterial agents. The aim of this study was the improvement of antibacterial activities of two EOs using nanotechnology.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Antibacterial activity was investigated on four important human pathogenic bacteria using the 96-well plate microdilution method, a quantitative approach. Eleven formulations were prepared using each of the EOs. Eventually, the best nanoformulation with the smallest particle size and polydispersive indices (PDI and SPAN) was selected using each EO for further investigations. Moreover, two microemulsions with similar ingredients and the same portion in comparison with two selected nanoemulsions were also prepared. Antibacterial activity of each EO was compared with its micro- and nano-emulsions.

RESULTS

The antibacterial efficacy of Zataria multiflora EO (ZMEO) was significantly better than Mentha piperita EO (MPEO). Besides, the antibacterial activity of nanoemulsion of ZMEO with a particle size of 129 ± 12 nm was significantly better than no- and micro-formulated forms of ZMEO. Interestingly, the efficiency of MPEO nanoemulsion (160 ± 25 nm) was also significantly better than MPEO and its micro-formulated form.

CONCLUSION

Regardless of the intrinsic antibacterial property of two examined EOs, by formulating to nanoemulsion, their efficiencies were improved. Nanoemulsion of ZMEO introduced as an inexpensive, potent and green antibacterial agent.