Synergistic neuroprotective effects of Danshensu and hydroxysafflor yellow A on cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury in rats

Protective effect of Danshensu against neurotoxicity induced by monosodium glutamate in adult mice and their offspring

Excessive neuronal excitation by glutamate is a well-established cause of neurotoxicity, leading to severe impairment of brain function. Excitotoxicity is a key factor in numerous neurodegenerative conditions. In this study, we investigated the neuroprotective effects of Danshensu (DSS) against monosodium glutamate (MSG)-induced neurotoxicity in adult mice and their offspring. We randomly divided one hundred 8-week-old Kunming mice (equal number of males and females) into a control group and an experimental group. The experimental group was further subdivided into various treatment groups, including MSG gavage treatment, bwbw DSS treatment group 1 (bwbw DSS treatment group 2, a drug control group, and a normal control group (receiving an equal volume of physiological saline for ten consecutive days). Additionally, another one hundred healthy 8-week-old Kunming mice were similarly divided into groups and treated. These mice were paired randomly (one male and one female) and pregnant females were housed separately to obtain offspring. Subsequently, we conducted histological and behavioral analyses on adult mice and their offspring. MSG treatment induced significant cellular edema and hippocampal damage in both the treated mice and their offspring. However, varying doses of DSS effectively counteracted the neurotoxic effects of MSG, with no adverse impact on brain tissue structure or neural function in either adult mice or their offspring. Behavioral experiments further confirmed that DSS exerted a substantial protective effect against MSG-induced impairment of learning and memory in the treated adult mice and their offspring, in addition to mitigating central nervous system overexcitation and inhibiting exploratory behavior. In conclusion, DSS exerts significant protective effects against MSG-induced neurotoxicity in both adult mice and their offspring.

Sodium Danshensu ameliorates cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury by inhibiting CLIC4/NLRP3 inflammasome-mediated endothelial cell pyroptosis

Endothelial pyroptosis promotes cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury (CIRI). Sodium Danshensu (SDSS) has been shown to attenuate CIRI and have anti-inflammatory properties in endothelial cells. However, the mechanism and effect of SDSS on alleviating endothelial pyroptosis after CIRI remains poorly understood. Thus, we aimed to investigate the efficacy and mechanism of SDSS in reducing endothelial pyroptosis. It has been shown that SDSS administration inhibited NLRP3 inflammasome-mediated pyroptosis. As demonstrated by protein microarrays, molecular docking, CETSA and ITDRFCETSA , SDSS bound strongly to CLIC4. Furthermore, SDSS can decrease its expression and inhibit its translocation. Its effectiveness was lowered by CLIC4 overexpression but not by knockdown. Overall The beneficial effect of SDSS against CIRI in this study can be ascribed to blocking endothelial pyroptosis by binding to CLIC4 and then inhibiting chloride efflux-dependent NLRP3 inflammasome activation.

Astrocytes and microglia-targeted Danshensu liposomes enhance the therapeutic effects on cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury

Cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury (CI/RI) is the main cause of disability and death in stroke without satisfactory therapeutic effect. Inflammation mediated by activation of astrocytes and microglia is the main pathological mechanism of CI/RI. Danshensu (DSS) has been shown to exert anti-inflammatory effects against brain injury. However, limited by its poor cellular permeability and low bioavailability, it is still needed the new DSS preparations with the ability to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and target inflammatory glial cells. In this study, we developed phosphatidylserine (PS) and transferrin (TF) modified liposomes carrying DSS (TF/PS/DSS-LPs) to improve the therapeutic efficacy against ischemic stroke. First, TF molecules targeted transferrin receptor (TfR) that is overexpressed in the BBB. Following the liposomes enter the brain, PS modification allowed the liposomes to target and bind to the overexpressed phosphatidylserine-specific receptors (PSRs) on the surface of astrocytes and microglia. Furthermore, it enhanced the uptake of TF/PS/DSS-LPs by astrocytes and microglia, while polarizing astrocytes from A1 to A2 and microglia from M1 to M2, reducing neuronal inflammation, and ultimately ameliorating cerebral ischemic injury. Thus, TF/PS/DSS-LPs could potentially serve as a promising strategy for the CI/RI treatment.

Hydroxysafflor Yellow A Exerts Neuroprotective Effect by Reducing Aβ Toxicity Through Inhibiting Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress in Oxygen-Glucose Deprivation/Reperfusion Cell Model

Ischemia stroke is thought to be one of the vascular risks associated with neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease (AD). Hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA) has been reported to protect against stroke and AD, while the underlying mechanism remains unclear. In this study, SH-SY5Y cell model treated with oxygen-glucose deprivation/reperfusion (OGD/R) was used to explore the potential mechanism of HSYA. Results from cell counting kit-8 (CCK-8) showed that 10 μM HSYA restored the cell viability after OGD 2 hours/R 24 hours. HSYA reduced the levels of malondialdehyde and reactive oxygen species, while improved the levels of superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase. Furthermore, apoptosis was inhibited, and the expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor was improved after HSYA treatment. In addition, the expression levels of amyloid-β peptides (Aβ) and BACE1 were decreased by HSYA, as well as the expression levels of binding immunoglobulin heavy chain protein, PKR-like endoplasmic reticulum (ER) kinase pathway, and activating transcription factor 6 pathway, whereas the expression level of protein disulfide isomerase was increased. Based on these results, HSYA might reduce Aβ toxicity after OGD/R by interfering with apoptosis, oxidation, and neurotrophic factors, as well as relieving ER stress.

Protective effect of hydroxysafflor yellow A on MSCs against senescence induced by d-galactose

Objective

To examine the protective effects of hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA) against the senescence of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) induced by d-galactose (d-gal) in vitro, and investigate the potential mechanism involved.

Methods

Grouping experiment, Normal control (NC) group: conventional culture with complete medium; Senescence group: MSCs were cultured for 48 h with complete medium containing 10 g/L d-gal; HSYA group: on the basis of senescence induction, HSYA with the suitable concentration was used to protect MSCs. The key experimental indices associated with oxidative stress, inflammatory response, cell senescence, proliferation and apoptosis were measured through chemical colorimetry, β-galactosidase staining, EdU incorporation and flow cytometry, respectively. The relative quantity (RQ) of proteins related closely to cell proliferation, apoptosis, and NF-κB signaling were measured by Western blotting.

Results

As compared with Senescence group, treatment with HSYA (120 mg/L) effectively ameliorated the adverse situation of MSCs. Oxidation stress and inflammation along with d-Gal induction was dramatically alleviated in MSCs; The β-Gal-positive staining indicated that MSC senescence was significantly mitigated; The proliferative capability of MSCs was significantly increased by up-regulating PCNA and inhibiting p16 expression; The anti-apoptotic effect on MSCs was exerted by down-regulating the RQ of cleaved Caspase-3 and Bax; The activity of NF-κB signaling in MSCs was notably suppressed through inhibiting phosphorylation of IKKβ and p65.

Conclusion

HSYA (120 mg/L) significantly delayed the d-Gal-induced senescence process in MSCs through attenuating inflammatory reaction and oxidative stress, and suppressing the activity of NF-κB signaling.

Protective potential of hydroxysafflor yellow A in cerebral ischemia and reperfusion injury: An overview of evidence from experimental studies

Ischemic stroke, mostly caused by thromboembolic or thrombotic arterial occlusions, is a primary leading cause of death worldwide with high morbidity and disability. Unfortunately, no specific medicine is available for the treatment of cerebral I/R injury due to its limitation of therapeutic window. Hydroxysafflor yellow A, a natural product extracted from Carthamus tinctorius, has been extensively investigated on its pharmacological properties in cerebrovascular diseases. However, review focusing on the beneficial role of HSYA against cerebral I/R injury is still lacking. In this paper, we reviewed the neuroprotective effect of HSYA in preclinical studies and the underlying mechanisms involved, as well as clinical data that support the pharmacological activities. Additionally, the sources, physicochemical properties, biosynthesis, safety and limitations of HSYA were also reviewed. As a result, HSYA possesses a wide range of beneficial effects against cerebral I/R injury, and its action mechanisms include anti-excitotoxicity, anti-oxidant stress, anti-apoptosis, anti-inflammation, attenuating BBB leakage and regulating autophagy. Collectively, HSYA might be applied as one of the promising alternatives in ischemic stroke treatment.

Therapeutic effect and mechanism of danshensu on coronary heart disease using liquid chromatography combined with mass spectrometry metabolomics

Metabolomics can discover the biomarkers and metabolic pathways, provides the possibility for insights into the pharmacological action and mechanism of natural products. The therapeutic effect and mechanism of danshensu (DSS) on total metabolic pathways has not been well investigated. The aim of this study was to explore the disturbed endogenous biomarkers and metabolic pathways reflecting the pharmacological activity of DSS, and mechanism of action of DSS using comprehensive metabolome analysis based on high-throughput metabolomics technology combined with ultra-high performance liquid chromatography (UPLC) coupled with quadrupole tandem time-of-flight mass spectrometry (Q-TOF-MS) and pattern recognition method. Through the changes of the overall metabolic profile and the related biomarkers, the intervention effect of natural product danshensu (DSS) treatment on CHD model rats was revealed. The results showed that after the model replication was established, the metabolic profile was clearly separated, and a total of 26 potential biomarkers were screened out, and involving 8 metabolic pathways. After different doses of DSS solution were given, a total of 20 biomarkers could be significantly regulated, mainly involving primary bile acid biosynthesis, glycerophospholipid metabolism, and lipid metabolism. It showed UPLC-MS-based metabolomics can be used for discovering potential biomarkers and metabolic pathways of CHD, and to further understand and dissecting pharmacological effects and mechanisms of natural products via metabolomics techniques.

Danshensu alleviates pseudo-typed SARS-CoV-2 induced mouse acute lung inflammation

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) can induce acute inflammatory response like acute lung inflammation (ALI) or acute respiratory distress syndrome, leading to severe progression and mortality. Therapeutics for treatment of SARS-CoV-2-triggered respiratory inflammation are urgent to be discovered. Our previous study shows that Salvianolic acid C potently inhibits SARS-CoV-2 infection. In this study, we investigated the antiviral effects of a Salvia miltiorrhiza compound, Danshensu, in vitro and in vivo, including the mechanism of S protein-mediated virus attachment and entry into target cells. In authentic and pseudo-typed virus assays in vitro, Danshensu displayed a potent antiviral activity against SARS-CoV-2 with EC₅₀ of 0.97 μM, and potently inhibited the entry of SARS-CoV-2 S protein-pseudo-typed virus (SARS-CoV-2 S) into ACE2-overexpressed HEK-293T cells (IC₅₀ = 0.31 μM) and Vero-E6 cell (IC₅₀ = 4.97 μM). Mice received SARS-CoV-2 S via trachea to induce ALI, while the VSV-G treated mice served as controls. The mice were administered Danshensu (25, 50, 100 mg/kg, i.v., once) or Danshensu (25, 50, 100 mg·kg^-1·d^-1, oral administration, for 7 days) before SARS-CoV-2 S infection. We showed that SARS-CoV-2 S infection induced severe inflammatory cell infiltration, severely damaged lung tissue structure, highly expressed levels of inflammatory cytokines, and activated TLR4 and hyperphosphorylation of the NF-κB p65; the high expression of angiotensinogen (AGT) and low expression of ACE2 at the mRNA level in the lung tissue were also observed. Both oral and intravenous pretreatment with Danshensu dose-dependently alleviated the pathological alterations in mice infected with SARS-CoV-2 S. This study not only establishes a mouse model of pseudo-typed SARS-CoV-2 (SARS-CoV-2 S) induced ALI, but also demonstrates that Danshensu is a potential treatment for COVID-19 patients to inhibit the lung inflammatory response.

Bioactive Substances in Safflower Flowers and Their Applicability in Medicine and Health-Promoting Foods

Safflower flowers (Carthamus tinctorius) contain many natural substances with a wide range of economic uses. The most famous dye isolated from flower petals is hydroxysafflor A (HSYA), which has antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties. This review is aimed at updating the state of knowledge about their applicability in oncology, pulmonology, cardiology, gynecology, dermatology, gastrology, immunology, and suitability in the treatment of obesity and diabetes and its consequences with information published mainly in 2018-2020. They were also effective in treating obesity and diabetes and its consequences. The issues related to the possibilities of using HSYA in the production of health-promoting food were also analyzed.

Effect of Qizhitongluo capsule on lower limb rehabilitation after stroke: A randomized clinical trial

BACKGROUND

An individual's level of lower limb motor function is associated with his or her disability level after stroke, and motor improvement may lead to a better prognosis and quality of life. Data from animal models show that Qizhitongluo (QZTL) capsule facilitates recovery after focal brain injury. We aimed to validate the efficacy and safety of the QZTL capsule for promoting lower limb motor recovery in poststroke patients.

METHODS

In this randomized, multicenter, double-blind, placebo- and active-controlled trial from 13 sites in China, participants with ischemic stroke and Fugl-Meyer motor scale (FMMS) scores of <95 were eligible for inclusion. Patients were randomly assigned in a 2:1:1 ratio to the QZTL group, Naoxintong (NXT) group or placebo group for 12 weeks at 15-28 days after the onset of stroke. The primary outcome was the change in the Lower Limb FMMS (FMMS-LL) score from baseline over the 12-week intervention period.

RESULTS

622 participants were randomly assigned to the QZTL group (309), NXT group (159), or placebo group (154). The FMMS-LL score increased by 4.81 points (95 % CI, 4.27-5.35) in the QZTL group, by 3.77 points (95 % CI, 3.03-4.51) in the NXT group and by 3.00 points (95 % CI, 3.03-4.51) in the placebo group at week 12. The QZTL group showed significantly larger improvements compared with the placebo group at each interview from weeks 4-12 (difference, 0.89 [0.30,1.49] at week 4, P = 0.0032; difference, 1.83[1.01,2.66] at 90 days poststroke, P < 0.0001; difference, 1.81[0.88,2.74] at week 12, P = 0.0001).

CONCLUSION

The QZTL capsule is an effective treatment for lower limb motor impairment. The finding indicates that the QZTL capsule may be used as a potential new strategy for stroke rehabilitation.

Restoration of early deficiency of axonal guidance signaling by guanxinning injection as a novel therapeutic option for acute ischemic stroke

Despite of its high morbidity and mortality, there is still a lack of effective treatment for ischemic stroke in part due to our incomplete understanding of molecular mechanisms of its pathogenesis. In this study, we demonstrate that SHH-PTCH1-GLI1-mediated axonal guidance signaling and its related neurogenesis, a central pathway for neuronal development, also plays a critical role in early stage of an acute stroke model. Specifically, in vivo, we evaluated the effect of GXNI on ischemic stroke mice via using the middle cerebral artery embolization model, and found that GXNI significantly alleviated cerebral ischemic reperfusion (I/R) injury by reducing the volume of cerebral infarction, neurological deficit score and cerebral edema, reversing the BBB permeability and histopathological changes. A combined approach of RNA-seq and network pharmacology analysis was used to reveal the underlying mechanisms of GXNI followed by RT-PCR, immunohistochemistry and western blotting validation. It was pointed out that axon guidance signaling pathway played the most prominent role in GXNI action with Shh, Ptch1, and Gli1 genes as the critical contributors in brain protection. In addition, GXNI markedly prevented primary cortical neuron cells from oxygen-glucose deprivation/reoxygenation damage in vitro, and promoted axon growth and synaptogenesis of damaged neurons, which further confirmed the results of in vivo experiments. Moreover, due to the inhibition of the SHH-PTCH1-GLI1 signaling pathway by cyclopropylamine, the effect of GXNI was significantly weakened. Hence, our study provides a novel option for the clinical treatment of acute ischemic stroke by GXNI via SHH-PTCH1-GLI1-mediated axonal guidance signaling, a neuronal development pathway previously considered for after-stroke recovery.

Astragaloside and/or Hydroxysafflor Yellow A Attenuates Oxygen-Glucose Deprivation-Induced Cultured Brain Microvessel Endothelial Cell Death through Downregulation of PHLPP-1

The incidence of ischemic stroke, a life-threatening condition in humans, amongst Asians is high and the prognosis is poor. In the absence of effective therapeutics, traditional Chinese medicines have been used that have shown promising results. It is crucial to identify traditional Chinese medicine formulas that protect the blood-brain barrier, which is damaged by an ischemic stroke. In this study, we aimed to elucidate such formulas. Brain microvascular endothelial cells (BMECs) were used to establish an in vitro ischemia-reperfusion model for oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) experiments to evaluate the function of two traditional Chinese medicines, namely, astragaloside (AS-IV) and hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA), in protecting against BMEC. Our results revealed that AS-IV and HSYA attenuated the cell loss caused by OGD by increasing cell proliferation and inhibiting cell apoptosis. In addition, these compounds promoted the migration and invasion of BMECs in vitro. Furthermore, we found that BMECs rescued by AS-IV and HSYA could be functionally activated in vitro, with AS-IV and HSYA showing synergetic effects in rescuing BMECs survival in vitro by reducing the expression of PHLPP-1 and activating Akt signaling. Our results elucidated the potential of AS-IV and HSYA in the prevention and treatment of stroke by protecting against cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury.

Therapeutic Potential of Hydroxysafflor Yellow A on Cardio-Cerebrovascular Diseases

The incidence rate of cardio-cerebrovascular diseases (CCVDs) is increasing worldwide, causing an increasingly serious public health burden. The pursuit of new promising treatment options is thus becoming a pressing issue. Hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA) is one of the main active quinochalcone C-glycosides in the florets of Carthamus tinctorius L., a medical and edible dual-purpose plant. HSYA has attracted much interest for its pharmacological actions in treating and/or managing CCVDs, such as myocardial and cerebral ischemia, hypertension, atherosclerosis, vascular dementia, and traumatic brain injury, in massive preclinical studies. In this review, we briefly summarized the mode and mechanism of action of HSYA on CCVDs based on these preclinical studies. The therapeutic effects of HSYA against CCVDs were presumed to reside mostly in its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective roles by acting on complex signaling pathways.

Activation of Nrf2 by Natural Bioactive Compounds: A Promising Approach for Stroke?

Stroke represents one of the main causes of disability and death worldwide. The pathological subtypes of stroke are ischemic stroke, the most frequent, and hemorrhagic stroke. Nrf2 is a transcription factor that regulates redox homeostasis. In stress conditions, Nrf2 translocates inside the nucleus and induces the transcription of enzymes involved in counteracting oxidative stress, endobiotic and xenobiotic metabolism, regulators of inflammation, and others. Different natural compounds, including food and plant-derived components, were shown to be able to activate Nrf2, mediating an antioxidant response. Some of these compounds were tested in stroke experimental models showing several beneficial actions. In this review, we focused on the studies that evidenced the positive effects of natural bioactive compounds in stroke experimental models through the activation of Nrf2 pathway. Interestingly, different natural compounds can activate Nrf2 through multiple pathways, inducing a strong antioxidant response associated with the beneficial effects against stroke. According to several studies, the combination of different bioactive compounds can lead to a better neuroprotection. In conclusion, natural bioactive compounds may represent new therapeutic strategies against stroke.

Carthamus tinctorius L. Extract ameliorates cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury in rats by regulating matrix metalloproteinases and apoptosis

We investigate the protective effect of Carthamus tinctorius L. (CTL, also known as Honghua in China or Safflower) on cerebral ischemia-reperfusion and explored the possible mechanisms on regulating apoptosis and matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs). High-performance liquid chromatography method with diode array detection analysis was established to analyze the components of CTL. Middle cerebral artery occlusion rats model was established to evaluate Neurological Function Score and hematoxylin-eosin staining, as well as triphenyltetrazolium was used to examine the infarction area ratio. Transferase-mediated dUTP nick-end labeling was performed for the apoptosis. Apoptosis-related factors, including B-cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2), Bax and Caspase3, and MMPs-related MMP2, MMP9, tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases 1 (TIMP1) in ischemic brain, were assayed by Western blot, reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction, and immunohistochemistry. The data showed that CTL (2, 4 g crude drug/kg/d) treatment could significantly reduce the ischemic damage in brain tissue and improve a significant neurological function score. In addition, CTL could also attenuate apoptosis degree of brain tissues and regulate Bcl-2, Bax, and Caspase 3 and also have a significant decrease on MMP-9 expression, followed by a significant increase of TIMP1 protein expression. These findings indicated that regulation of CTL on apoptosis and MMPs contributed to its protective effect on ischemia/reperfusion injury.

Neuroprotective Effect of Danhong Injection on Cerebral Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury in Rats by Activation of the PI3K-Akt Pathway

Many traditional Chinese medicines, including Danhong injection (DHI), can be used to treat cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury and have neuroprotective effects on the brain; however, few studies have explored the mechanism by which this effect is generated. In this study, we investigated the neuroprotective effect of DHI against cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury mediated via the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway. After establishing the model of middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO), 60 male Sprague–Dawley rats were allocated to six groups as follows: sham, MCAO, DHI (MCAO + DHI), LY294002 (MCAO + LY294002 [PI3K-Akt pathway specific inhibitor]), DHI + LY294002 (MCAO + DHI + LY294002), and NMDP + LY294002 (MCAO + NMDP [nimodipine] + LY294002). Hematoxylin and eosin (HE) and terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick-end labeling (TUNEL) staining were used to evaluate the pathological changes of brain tissue and the degree of neuronal apoptosis. Real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR), western blot analysis and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays were used to measure the expression of Bad, Bax, Bcl-2, Bim, P53, MDM2, Akt, PI3K, p-Akt, p-PI3K, and Cyt-C. Compared with the MCAO group, brain tissue cell apoptosis was significantly reduced in the DHI group, and the brain function score was significantly improved. In addition, the expression of pro-apoptotic factors (Bad, Bax, and Bim) was significantly downregulated in the DHI group, while expression of the anti-apoptotic factor Bcl-2 was significantly upregulated, and expression of the apoptotic gene p53 was also significantly attenuated. Moreover, this neuroprotective effect was attenuated by the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway inhibitor (LY294002). Thus, our results confirmed the neuroprotective effects of DHI in rats with ischemia-reperfusion injury and indicate that these effects on the brain are partly generated by activation of the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway.

Comparative Pharmacokinetics of Hydrophilic Components in Salvia miltiorrhiza Bge. and Carthamus tinctorius L. in Rats That Underwent Cerebral Ischemia Reperfusion Using an HPLC-DAD Method

Background

In China, the combination of herb Salvia miltiorrhiza Bge. (Danshen) and Carthamus tinctorius L. (Honghua) is an effective treatment for stroke. A previous study showed that the combination of four herbal components: danshensu (DSS), hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA), salvianolic acid A (SAA), and salvianolic acid B (SAB) was effective for treatment of cerebral ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury in rats. However, the pharmacokinetic characteristics of this formula require further investigation. The present study investigated the pharmacokinetic differences between each component of in two formulas in cerebral I/R injury rats. The influencing factors may affect the compatibility of components were analyzed.

Methods

Focal cerebral I/R was induced by middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO). Rats that underwent MCAO were randomly divided into two groups and administered treatments through the tail vein. Blood samples were collected at predetermined time points following administration. The concentrations of DSS, HSYA, SAB, and SAA in rat plasma were determined using HPLC-DAD, and the main pharmacokinetic parameters were calculated. Pharmacokinetic parameters were calculated using DAS 3.2.6 software and SPSS 23.0 statistical analysis software.

Results

Our results showed that DSS, HSYA, SAB, and SAA in MCAO model rats had statistically significant differences in two formulas. For DSS and SAA, pharmacokinetic parameters with statistically significant differences including AUC_(0−t), AUMC_(0−t), MRT_(0−t), VRT_(0−t), t_1/2z, V_z, CL_z, and C_max (P < 0.01). For HSYA, significant differences in the parameters including AUC_(0−t), AUMC_(0−t), MRT_(0−t), VRT_(0−t) (P < 0.01), CL_z and C_max (P < 0.05).

Conclusion

The difference in pharmacokinetic parameters in response to each component may have been due to differences in the dosages of the components (HSYA, SAA, SAB) and the compatibility of components. Meanwhile, there were many influencing factors could affect the compatibility of components, such as the metabolism by CYP450 enzymes, plasma protein binding rates, and effects related to the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Moreover, our study provided new insights, such as choosing appropriate dosages of active components of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) to aid in prevention and treatment of cerebral ischemic diseases. The method and results in this study could provide a foundation for future pharmacological studies of the active components in Danshen and Honghua.

Pharmacokinetics of Active Ingredients of Salvia miltiorrhiza and Carthamus tinctorius in Compatibility in Normal and Cerebral Ischemia Rats: A Comparative Study

Background and Objective

Dan-Hong injection, which comprises extracts of Salvia miltiorrhiza and Carthamus tinctorius, promotes blood circulation and reduces blood stasis. Combination of S. miltiorrhiza and C. tinctorius is more effective in treating cerebral ischemia than S. miltiorrhiza alone. This study aimed to examine the pharmacokinetic characteristics of four active ingredients of S. miltiorrhiza and C. tinctorius, namely danshensu (DSS), hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA), and salvianolic acid A (SAA) and B (SAB) in normal and cerebral ischemia rats.

Methods

Normal and cerebral ischemia rats were injected via the tail vein with each active ingredient, and blood was collected through the jaw vein at different time points. The plasma concentration of the compatibility group was analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography, and pharmacokinetic parameters were determined using Pharmacokinetic Kinetica 4.4 software.

Results

The pharmacokinetics of the four active ingredients in the normal and cerebral ischemia rats were consistent with a two-compartment model. The area under the concentration–time curve was higher in normal rats than in cerebral ischemia rats, with a highly significant difference for SAA (P < 0.01). Clearance rates were lower in normal rats than in cerebral ischemia rats, with DSS showing the most significant difference (P < 0.01). Furthermore, there were significant differences between normal and cerebral ischemia rats in the distribution phase-elimination half life for DSS, SAA, and HSYA, as well as in the apparent volume of distribution for the central compartment for DSS and HSYA (P < 0.01). The plasma concentrations of the four active ingredients were higher in normal rats than in cerebral ischemia rats.

Conclusion

Cerebral ischemia rats showed higher drug clearance rates and longer retention times than normal rats, which may be due to destruction of the blood–brain barrier during cerebral ischemia–reperfusion. The four active ingredients likely integrated and interacted with each other to affect target sites in the brain to protect against cerebral ischemic injury.

Danshensu attenuates scopolamine and amyloid-β-induced cognitive impairments through the activation of PKA-CREB signaling in mice

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an important chronic neurodegenerative disorder and is mainly associated with cognitive dysfunction. At present, bioactive compounds from traditional medicinal plants have received much attention for the enhancement of cognitive function. Danshensu, a phenolic acid isolated from herbal medicines, has various pharmacological activities in the central nervous system, including anxiolytic-like and neuroprotective properties. The present study aimed to investigate the ameliorating effects of danshensu on scopolamine- and amyloid-β (Aβ) protein-induced cognitive impairments in mice. Danshensu (3 and 10 mg/kg, p.o.) effectively ameliorated scopolamine-induced cognitive dysfunction in mice, as measured in passive avoidance and Y-maze tasks. In a mechanistic study, danshensu inhibited monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A) activity but not MAO-B. Additionally, danshensu treatment increased the dopamine level and the phosphorylation levels of protein kinase A (PKA) and cAMP response element binding protein (CREB), in the cortex of the brain. Furthermore, the ameliorating effect of danshensu against scopolamine-induced cognitive impairment was fully blocked by H89, a PKA inhibitor. Finally, danshensu also ameliorated Aβ-induced cognitive impairments in an animal model of AD. The results revealed that danshensu treatment significantly improved scopolamine and Aβ-induced cognitive impairments in mice by facilitation of dopamine signaling cascade such as PKA and CREB due to MAO-A inhibition. Thus, danshensu could be used as a promising therapeutic agent for preventing and treating AD.

Danshensu Ameliorates Cardiac Ischaemia Reperfusion Injury through Activating Sirt1/FoxO1/Rab7 Signal Pathway

OBJECTIVE

To explore the specific molecular mechanisms of Danshensu (DSS) in the treatment of ischemia reperfusion injury (IRI).

METHODS

IRI model was established with isolated rat hearts by performing global ischaemia for 30 min, and then followed by 60 min reperfusion. Also, H9C2 cells were subjected to 4-h hypoxia followed by 3-h reoxygenation. Then 10 μmol/L DSS were added in the reperfusion/reoxygenation step to intervene IRI. Cardiac function, structural change and apoptosis were respectively tested by Langendorff System, hematoxylin and eosin (HE) and terminal-deoxynucleotidyl transferase mediated nick endabeling (TUNEL) stainings. Then lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), reactive oxygen species (ROS), superoxide gasification enzyme (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-PX) were detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Sirt1/FoxO1/Rab7 Signal Pathway was monitored at both protein and mRNA levels.

RESULTS

The results showed that IRI not only greatly attenuated cardiac function (LVDP and ±dp/dt_max, P<0.01, P<0.05) and increased the level of the marker enzymes (cardiac troponin T, LDH, P<0.01) from the coronary effluents, but also markedly induced changes in the structure of cardiomyocytes and contributed to apoptosis, which were mediated by boosted endogenous ROS. However, after treatment with DSS all above indexes were improved, which was related to activating Sirt1/FoxO1/Rab7 signal pathway accompanied with the enhancement of antioxidant defense system, such as superoxide gasification enzyme and glutathione peroxidase.

CONCLUSION

DSS is able to protect hearts from IRI, which may be attributable to inhibiting excessive ROS through Sirt1/FoxO1/Rab7 signaling.

Proteomic Analysis of Hydroxysafflor Yellow A Against Cerebral Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury in Rats

Hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA), an active component from Chinese medicinal herb, has been applied to the prevention and treatment of cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury (CIRI). To clarify the comprehensive mechanisms HSYA for stroke, we used label-free quantitative proteomic analysis to investigate the modulated proteins of rats subjected to CIRI and their alteration by HSYA. Neurological examination, infarct assessment, and biochemical assay were performed to validate the effects of HSYA, and the results indicated that HSYA played a significant role in brain protection. A total of 13 proteins were identified as overlapped proteins by label-free quantitative proteomic analysis. Gene Ontology and pathway analysis showed that these differentially expressed proteins were mainly enriched in the hypoxia-inducible factor 1 (HIF-1) signaling pathway. Furthermore, networks were constructed with respect to protein function interactions. The results suggested that seven proteins were identified as hub proteins between model and sham groups, while 25 proteins were identified as hub proteins between HSYA and model groups. In addition, the expressions of three overlapping proteins were validated by Western blot, and their levels were consistent with the results of label-free analysis. In conclusion, Eftud2, mTOR, Rab11, Ppp2r5e, and HIF-1 signaling pathways have been detected as key hub proteins and pathways in HSYA against CIRI through proteomic analysis. Our research has provided convincing explanations for the mechanism of HSYA against CIRI and the identified key proteins and pathways might provide novel therapeutics for CIRI.