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Hirata W, Itatani Y, Masui H, Kawada K, Mizuno R, Yamamoto T, Okamoto T, Ogawa R, Inamoto S, Maekawa H, Okamura R, Kiyasu Y, Hanada K, Okamoto M, Nishikawa Y, Sugimoto N, Tamura T, Hatano E, Sakai Y, Obama K. Downregulation of osteoprotegerin in colorectal cancer cells promotes liver metastasis via activating tumor-associated macrophage. Sci Rep 2023; 13:22217. [PMID: 38097649 PMCID: PMC10721637 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-49312-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2023] [Accepted: 12/06/2023] [Indexed: 12/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Osteoprotegerin (OPG) is a secreted cytokine that functions as a decoy receptor for receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-B (RANK) ligand (RANKL). Anti-RANKL treatment for bone metastasis has been widely accepted for solid tumors. However, the mechanism of OPG-RANKL-RANK signaling in systemic colorectal cancer (CRC) metastasis remains unclear. In this study, we investigated the relevance and function of OPG expression in CRC liver metastasis. First, we performed in silico analysis using The Cancer Genome Atlas public database and found that lower OPG expression in CRC was associated with poor overall survival. Immunohistochemistry analyses using resected specimen from patients with CRC in our institute confirmed the result. Patient-matched primary CRC and liver metastases showed a significant downregulation of OPG expression in metastatic lesions. In CRC cell lines, OPG expression did not suppress cell proliferation and migration. However, OPG expression inhibited macrophage migration by suppressing the RANKL-RANK pathway. Moreover, in vivo mouse liver metastasis models showed that OPG expression in CRC cells suppressed liver metastases. In addition, treatment with an anti-RANKL neutralizing antibody also suppressed liver metastases. These results showed that downregulation of OPG expression in CRC cells promotes liver metastasis by activating tumor-associated macrophage, which can become a candidate for targeted therapy with anti-RANKL neutralizing antibody for CRC liver metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wataru Hirata
- Department of Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, 54 Shogoin-Kawaharacho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8507, Japan
| | - Yoshiro Itatani
- Department of Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, 54 Shogoin-Kawaharacho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8507, Japan.
| | - Hideyuki Masui
- Department of Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, 54 Shogoin-Kawaharacho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8507, Japan
| | - Kenji Kawada
- Department of Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, 54 Shogoin-Kawaharacho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8507, Japan
- Department of Surgery, Kurashiki Central Hospital, Okayama, 710-8602, Japan
| | - Rei Mizuno
- Department of Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, 54 Shogoin-Kawaharacho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8507, Japan
- Department of Surgery, NHO Kyoto Medical Center, Kyoto, 611-0041, Japan
| | - Takamasa Yamamoto
- Department of Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, 54 Shogoin-Kawaharacho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8507, Japan
| | - Takuya Okamoto
- Department of Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, 54 Shogoin-Kawaharacho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8507, Japan
| | - Ryotaro Ogawa
- Department of Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, 54 Shogoin-Kawaharacho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8507, Japan
| | - Susumu Inamoto
- Department of Surgery, Japanese Red Cross Osaka Hospital, Osaka, 543-8555, Japan
| | - Hisatsugu Maekawa
- Department of Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, 54 Shogoin-Kawaharacho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8507, Japan
| | - Ryosuke Okamura
- Department of Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, 54 Shogoin-Kawaharacho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8507, Japan
| | - Yoshiyuki Kiyasu
- Department of Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, 54 Shogoin-Kawaharacho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8507, Japan
- Rogel Cancer Center, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Keita Hanada
- Department of Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, 54 Shogoin-Kawaharacho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8507, Japan
| | - Michio Okamoto
- Department of Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, 54 Shogoin-Kawaharacho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8507, Japan
| | - Yasuyo Nishikawa
- Department of Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, 54 Shogoin-Kawaharacho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8507, Japan
| | - Naoko Sugimoto
- Department of Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, 54 Shogoin-Kawaharacho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8507, Japan
| | - Takuya Tamura
- Department of Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, 54 Shogoin-Kawaharacho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8507, Japan
| | - Etsuro Hatano
- Department of Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, 54 Shogoin-Kawaharacho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8507, Japan
| | - Yoshiharu Sakai
- Department of Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, 54 Shogoin-Kawaharacho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8507, Japan
- Department of Surgery, Japanese Red Cross Osaka Hospital, Osaka, 543-8555, Japan
| | - Kazutaka Obama
- Department of Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, 54 Shogoin-Kawaharacho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8507, Japan
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Cai YX, Wu YQ, Liu J, Pan H, Deng W, Sun W, Xie C, Huang XF. Proteome-wide analysis reveals potential therapeutic targets for Colorectal cancer: a two-sample mendelian randomization study. BMC Cancer 2023; 23:1188. [PMID: 38049731 PMCID: PMC10696874 DOI: 10.1186/s12885-023-11669-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2023] [Accepted: 11/23/2023] [Indexed: 12/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a leading cause of cancer-related mortality, highlighting an unmet clinical need for more effective therapies. This study aims to evaluate the causal relationship between 4,489 plasma proteins and CRC to identify potential therapeutic targets for CRC. METHODS We conducted two-sample Mendelian randomization (MR) analysis to examine the causal effects of plasma proteins on CRC. Mediation analysis was performed to assess the indirect effects of plasma proteins on CRC through associated risk factors. In addition, we conducted a phenome-wide association study using the UK Biobank dataset to examine associations between these plasma proteins and other phenotypes. RESULTS Out of 4,489 plasma proteins, MR analysis revealed causal associations with CRC for 23 proteins, including VIMP, MICB, TNFRSF11B, C5orf38 and SLC5A8. Our findings also confirm the associations between reported risk factors and CRC. Mediation analysis identified mediating effects of proteins on CRC outcomes through risk factors. Furthermore, MR analysis identified 154 plasma proteins are causally linked to at least one CRC risk factor. CONCLUSIONS Our study evaluated the causal relationships between plasma proteins and CRC, providing a more complete understanding of potential therapeutic targets for CRC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Xin Cai
- Zhejiang Provincial Clinical Research Center for Pediatric Disease, The Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Yi-Qing Wu
- Department of Pediatrics, the Second School of Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Jie Liu
- Information Technology Center, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Huanle Pan
- Department of Radiation and Medical Oncology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Wenhai Deng
- Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medicine, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Sciences, Ministry of Education, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Weijian Sun
- Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China.
| | - Congying Xie
- Department of Radiation and Medical Oncology, The Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China.
| | - Xiu-Feng Huang
- Zhejiang Provincial Clinical Research Center for Pediatric Disease, The Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China.
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Jong KXJ, Mohamed EHM, Ibrahim ZA. Escaping cell death via TRAIL decoy receptors: a systematic review of their roles and expressions in colorectal cancer. Apoptosis 2022; 27:787-799. [PMID: 36207556 DOI: 10.1007/s10495-022-01774-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
The development of targeted therapy such as tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL)-based therapy has gained increasing attention as a promising new approach in cancer therapy. TRAIL specifically targets cancer cells while sparing the normal cells, thus, limiting the known side effects of the majority anti-cancer therapies. As more extensive research and clinical trials are conducted, resistance to TRAIL molecule has become one of the significant issues associated with the failure of TRAIL in treating colorectal cancer (CRC). To date, the exact mechanism by which TRAIL resistance may have occurred remains unknown. Interestingly, recent studies have revealed the critical role of the TRAIL decoy receptor family; consisting of decoy receptor 1 (DcR1; also known as TRAIL-R3), decoy receptor 2 (DcR2; also known as TRAIL-R4), and osteoprotegerin (OPG) in driving TRAIL resistance. This review highlights the expression of the decoy receptors in CRC and its possible association with the reduction in sensitivity towards TRAIL treatment based on the currently available in vitro, in vivo, and human studies. Additionally, discrepancies between the outcomes from different research groups are discussed, and essential areas are highlighted for future investigation of the roles of decoy receptors in modulating TRAIL-induced apoptosis. Overcoming TRAIL resistance through modulating the expression(s) and elucidating the role(s) of TRAIL decoy receptors hold great promise for TRAIL-based therapies to be extensively explored in treating human cancers including CRC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly Xue Jing Jong
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | | | - Zaridatul Aini Ibrahim
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
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Colorectal Cancer and Bone Tissue: Fantastic Relations and Where to Find Them. Cancers (Basel) 2020; 12:cancers12082029. [PMID: 32722068 PMCID: PMC7464482 DOI: 10.3390/cancers12082029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2020] [Revised: 06/11/2020] [Accepted: 07/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third most common cancer worldwide. There is a need for the early diagnosis of CRC for a better prognostic outcome. It is, therefore, crucial to understand the CRC pathogenesis in all its aspects. In many cases, one of the main causes of cancer-related deaths is the presence of metastases. In this context, an often overlooked aspect is the metastatic tropism, since CRC, like other cancers, is more prone to metastasize some organs rather than others. Beyond the liver and lung, and differently from other types of cancers, a not usual site of CRC metastases is the bone. However, it may assume a crucial role in the development and the outcome of the disease. Therefore, this review aims to discuss the complex relations between bone markers and CRC pathogenesis, suggesting the use of these molecules as potential targets for therapeutic purposes. Different osteogenic molecules, some of whom are growth factors and are implicated in the different osteogenic pathways, have been proved to also be involved in CRC progression. Some of them are oncogenes, while others oncosuppressors, and in a future perspective, some of them may represent new potential CRC biomarkers.
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Birgisson H, Tsimogiannis K, Freyhult E, Kamali-Moghaddam M. Plasma Protein Profiling Reveal Osteoprotegerin as a Marker of Prognostic Impact for Colorectal Cancer. Transl Oncol 2018; 11:1034-1043. [PMID: 29982101 PMCID: PMC6037900 DOI: 10.1016/j.tranon.2018.05.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2018] [Revised: 05/18/2018] [Accepted: 05/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND: Due to difficulties in predicting recurrences in colorectal cancer stages II and III, reliable prognostic biomarkers could be a breakthrough for individualized treatment and follow-up. OBJECTIVE: To find potential prognostic protein biomarkers in colorectal cancer, using the proximity extension assays. METHODS: A panel of 92 oncology-related proteins was analyzed with proximity extension assays, in plasma from a cohort of 261 colorectal cancer patients with stage II-IV. The survival analyses were corrected for disease stage and age, and the recurrence analyses were corrected for disease stage. The significance threshold was adjusted for multiple comparisons. RESULTS: The plasma proteins expression levels had a greater prognostic relevance in disease stage III colorectal cancer than in disease stage II, and for overall survival than for time to recurrence. Osteoprotegerin was the only biomarker candidate in the protein panel that had a statistical significant association with overall survival (P = .00029). None of the proteins were statistically significantly associated with time to recurrence. CONCLUSIONS: Of the 92 analyzed plasma proteins, osteoprotegerin showed the strongest prognostic impact in patients with colorectal cancer, and therefore osteoprotegerin is a potential predictive marker, and it also could be a target for treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helgi Birgisson
- Department of Surgical Sciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.
| | | | - Eva Freyhult
- Department of Medical Sciences, National Bioinformatics Infrastructure Sweden, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Masood Kamali-Moghaddam
- Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
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Moon A, Do SI, Kim HS, Kim YW. Downregulation of osteoprotegerin expression in metastatic colorectal carcinoma predicts recurrent metastasis and poor prognosis. Oncotarget 2018; 7:79319-79326. [PMID: 27764814 PMCID: PMC5346716 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.12686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2016] [Accepted: 09/30/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
We recently reported the downregulation of osteoprotegerin expression in primary colorectal carcinoma and its significant association with aggressive oncogenic behavior, which suggest that this process contributes to colorectal carcinoma development and progression. In this study, we used immunohistochemical staining to evaluate osteoprotegerin expression in 81 colorectal liver metastasis tissue samples and investigated its possible association with the clinicopathological characteristics and outcomes of patients with colorectal liver metastasis. These tissues exhibited significantly reduced expression of osteoprotegerin compared to primary colorectal carcinomas and normal colorectal mucosa. This reduced expression was significantly associated with the extent of colorectal liver metastasis, including multiplicity of metastatic tumors, involvement of the bilateral hepatic lobes, and higher histological grade. In addition, reduced osteoprotegerin expression was an independent significant predictor of recurrent liver metastasis and prognostic factor for reduced patient survival. These findings suggest that osteoprotegerin expression may be a novel predictor of recurrent liver metastasis and a prognostic biomarker in patients with colorectal liver metastasis. Patients harboring colorectal liver metastasis with reduced osteoprotegerin expression should be carefully monitored after hepatic resection for colorectal liver metastasis to enable early detection of potentially resectable metastatic recurrences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahrim Moon
- Department of Pathology, Soonchunhyang University Bucheon Hospital, Soonchunhyang University College of Medicine, Bucheon-si, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Sung-Im Do
- Department of Pathology, Kangbuk Samsung Hospital, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun-Soo Kim
- Department of Pathology, Severance Hospital, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Youn-Wha Kim
- Department of Pathology, Kyung Hee University School of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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Kim JY, Do SI, Bae GE, Kim HS. B-cell translocation gene 1 is downregulated by promoter methylation in ovarian carcinoma. J Cancer 2017; 8:2669-2675. [PMID: 28928854 PMCID: PMC5604197 DOI: 10.7150/jca.21037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2017] [Accepted: 06/27/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
A better understanding of tumor biology is important in the identification of molecules that are downregulated in malignancy and in determining their role in tumor suppression. B-cell translocation gene 1 (BTG1) has been shown to act as a tumor suppressor in several types of human malignancy. In this study, we analyzed BTG1 expression in ovarian carcinoma cell lines, and we investigated the mechanism underlying the observed alterations. The methylation status of the BTG1 promoter region was determined by methylation-specific polymerase chain reaction, and the effect of demethylation on BTG1 expression was analyzed. BTG1 protein expression in ovarian high-grade serous carcinoma tissue samples was evaluated using immunohistochemistry. BTG1 mRNA and protein expression were reduced in ovarian carcinoma cells. In BTG1-silenced ovarian cancer cells, the BTG1 promoter was highly methylated. Treatment with 5-aza-deoxycytidine significantly elevated BTG1 mRNA and protein expression. Immunostaining demonstrated that BTG1 expression was significantly lower in ovarian carcinoma tissue samples than nonpathological ovaries and fallopian tubes. We demonstrated that BTG1 silencing in ovarian carcinoma occurs through epigenetic repression and is involved in the ovarian carcinogenesis. Our data suggest that BTG1 is a potential therapeutic target for patients with ovarian carcinoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji-Ye Kim
- Department of Pathology, Severance Hospital, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea.,Department of Pathology and Translational Genomics, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Sung-Im Do
- Department of Pathology, Kangbuk Samsung Hospital, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Go Eun Bae
- Department of Pathology, The Catholic University of Korea Incheon St. Mary's Hospital, Incheon, Republic of Korea.,Department of Pathology, Kyung Hee University Hospital at Gangdong, Kyung Hee University School of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun-Soo Kim
- Department of Pathology, Severance Hospital, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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Clinicopathological characteristics of fallopian tube metastases from primary endometrial, cervical, and nongynecological malignancies: a single institutional experience. Virchows Arch 2017; 471:363-373. [DOI: 10.1007/s00428-017-2186-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2017] [Revised: 05/15/2017] [Accepted: 06/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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Li X, Zhang G, Wang Y, Elgehama A, Sun Y, Li L, Gu Y, Guo W, Xu Q. Loss of periplakin expression is associated with the tumorigenesis of colorectal carcinoma. Biomed Pharmacother 2017; 87:366-374. [PMID: 28068625 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2016.12.103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2016] [Revised: 12/19/2016] [Accepted: 12/21/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Periplakin (PPL), a member of the plakin protein family, has been reported to be down-expressed in urothelial carcinoma. The role of PPL in human colorectal cancer, however, remains largely unknown. Also little is known about the contribution of PPL to the malignant property of colorectal cancer and the intracellular function of PPL. In this study, we demonstrated that PPL was apparently down-expressed in colon carcinomas compared with normal and para-carcinoma tissues, which was correlated with the tumor size. Enforced expression of PPL in HT29 cells inhibited its proliferation evidenced by decreased expression of phosphorylated ERK and PCNA. Furthermore, PPL overexpression could reduce metastasis and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) of HT29 cells, with decreased expression of N-cadherin, Snail, Slug and α-SMA while increased expression of E-cadherin. On the contrary, the PPL knockdown could promote the cell proliferation, migratory, invasive and EMT ability of HT29 cells. Moreover, enforced expression of PPL induced G1/G0 cell cycle arrest, with decreased cyclin D1, p-Rb and increased expression of p27kib, which could be reversed by PPL knockdown. In addition, PPL overexpression inhibited the growth of colon cancer allograft in vivo. Taken together, acted as a tumor suppressor in colon cancer progression, PPL could be a new biomarker or potential therapeutic target in colon cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiang Li
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Life Science, Nanjing University, 163 Xianlin Avenue, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Guohui Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Life Science, Nanjing University, 163 Xianlin Avenue, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Yan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Life Science, Nanjing University, 163 Xianlin Avenue, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Ahmed Elgehama
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Life Science, Nanjing University, 163 Xianlin Avenue, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Yang Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Life Science, Nanjing University, 163 Xianlin Avenue, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Lele Li
- Department of Oncology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210029, China
| | - Yanhong Gu
- Department of Oncology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210029, China.
| | - Wenjie Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Life Science, Nanjing University, 163 Xianlin Avenue, Nanjing 210023, China.
| | - Qiang Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Life Science, Nanjing University, 163 Xianlin Avenue, Nanjing 210023, China.
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