A comparison of dense-to-lean and fixed lean schedules of alternative reinforcement and extinction

Examination of clinical variables affecting resurgence: A reanalysis of 46 applications

Despite the efficacy of behavioral interventions, resurgence of challenging behavior (e.g., aggression, self-injury) following successful treatment can still occur. Applied work has focused on identifying treatment-related variables thought to affect the occurrence and magnitude of resurgence. The current study describes the relation between several variables (i.e., phase duration, response rates in baseline and treatment, obtained rates of reinforcement, downshift in reinforcement step size) and resurgence in a retrospective consecutive controlled case series of 46 treatment applications for challenging behavior conducted in an inpatient setting. Only the downshift in reinforcement (e.g., schedule-thinning) step size was correlated with the magnitude of resurgence. These results are consistent with recent findings suggesting that treatment duration and other factors have inconsistent effects on resurgence of challenging behavior.

Application of a terminal schedule probe method to inform schedule thinning with multiple schedules

Multiple schedules are effective at decreasing challenging behavior and maintaining alternative behavior at acceptable levels. Currently, no conclusive guidance is available for empirically deriving multiple-schedule components (continuous reinforcement for alternative behavior and extinction for challenging behavior [discriminative stimulus] and extinction for both alternative and challenging behavior [delta stimulus]) during the schedule-thinning process. In the current investigation, we describe a terminal schedule probe method to determine delta stimulus starting points and strategies for subsequent schedule-thinning progressions to reach caregiver-informed terminal schedules. We review schedule-thinning outcomes for a clinical cohort using a consecutive controlled case series approach and report results for two groups: One group included applications of terminal probe thinning (n = 24), and the other involved traditional dense-to-lean thinning (n = 18). Outcomes suggest that the terminal schedule probe method produced effective treatments with less resurgence of challenging behavior and leaner, more feasible, multiple schedules.

Updated Recommendations for Reinforcement Schedule Thinning following Functional Communication Training

Schedule thinning is a necessary treatment procedure following the acquisition of a communication response during functional communication training. In this article, we update and extend the Hagopian et al. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 4, 4-16, (2011) review and recommendations on schedule-thinning procedures following functional communication training. Since their publication, substantial research has been published on the efficacy, efficiency, and social validity of schedule-thinning methods. We provide updated recommendations for schedule thinning based on contemporary literature that has been published since 2011, as well as discuss key areas for future research.

Resurgence of destructive behavior following differential rates of alternative reinforcement

Behavioral momentum theory (BMT) suggests that resurgence of destructive behavior may be at least partly determined by the rate of alternative reinforcement, with lean schedules of reinforcement producing less resurgence than dense schedules. Findings from basic and translational studies have been mixed, and the effects of alternative reinforcement rate on resurgence remain unclear. In the current study, we conducted a within-subject evaluation of resurgence during extinction with four children following functional communication training using dense and lean (BMT-informed) schedules of alternative reinforcement. We observed no reliable differences in resurgence across the dense and lean conditions. We discuss implications of these findings in relation to future research using quantitative analyses to evaluate the relative effects of alternative reinforcement rate and other BMT-based strategies for mitigating resurgence in applied settings.

Modeling Behavioral Persistence with Resurgence as Choice in Context (RaC2): A Tutorial

Resurgence as Choice in Context (RaC2) is a quantitative model for evaluating the reemergence of a previously extinguished response when alternative reinforcement is worsened. Rooted in the matching law, RaC2 proposes that allocation between target and alternative responding is based on changes in the relative value of each response option over time, accounting for periods with and without alternative reinforcement. Given that practitioners and applied researchers may have limited experience with constructing quantitative models, we provide a step-by-step task analysis for building RaC2 using Microsoft Excel 2013. We also provide a few basic learning activities to help readers better understand RaC2 itself, the variables that affect the model's predictions, and the clinical implications of those predictions.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40617-023-00796-y.

Gradual Change Procedures in Behavior Analysis

A wide variety of procedures within behavior analysis use gradual change in stimuli, response requirements, reinforcement, or some combination thereof, to effectively change behavior. Such procedures include shaping, thinning, fading, and chaining. Collectively, gradual change procedures represent a conceptually systematic technology of behavior change with wide-ranging empirical support across diverse settings and contexts. However, navigating the gradual change literature can be challenging. Similar terms are used to describe functionally distinct procedures (e.g., stimulus fading, delay fading, demand fading), and distinct terms are used to describe functionally similar procedures (e.g., leaning, demand fading). I propose a taxonomy in which gradual change procedures are categorized according to the functional component of the contingency on which they act. Three broad categories are proposed: Gradual Changes in Discriminative Stimuli, Response Requirement, and Reinforcement. I provide examples of research in each category, across basic and applied settings, including terminology used by the author(s) to describe each procedure. Finally, I discuss benefits of this framework for consumers of the literature.

Schedule Thinning Following Functional Communication Training: Effects of Chained and Multiple Schedules

Functional communication training (FCT) is used to reduce rates of problem behavior by teaching communicative responses that access functionally equivalent reinforcers. During FCT, the communicative response is typically placed on a dense schedule of reinforcement that is unlikely to be maintained in the natural environment. Experiment 1 evaluated the effects of two schedule-thinning procedures (chained schedules and multiple schedules) on problem behavior maintained by escape from demands for three participants following FCT. The chained and multiple-schedule procedures were effective in reducing rates of problem behavior. Compliance increased under both schedules, but the chained schedule resulted in higher levels of compliance with two participants. In Experiment 2, participants' preference for the chained or multiple-schedule procedure was evaluated using a modified concurrent-chain procedure. One participant preferred the chained schedule. One participant preferred the multiple schedule. One participant did not appear to discriminate between conditions.

Resurgence and repeated within-session progressive-interval thinning of alternative reinforcement

Resurgence of a previously suppressed target behavior is common when reinforcement for a more recently reinforced alternative behavior is thinned. To better characterize such resurgence, these experiments examined repeated within-session alternative reinforcement thinning using a progressive-interval (PI) schedule with rats. In Experiment 1, a transition from a high rate of alternative reinforcement to a within-session PI schedule generated robust resurgence, but subsequent complete removal of alternative reinforcement produced no additional resurgence. Experiment 2 replicated these findings and showed similar effects with a fixed-interval (FI) schedule arranging similarly reduced session-wide rates of alternative reinforcement. Thus, the lack of additional resurgence following repeated exposure to the PI schedule was likely due to the low overall obtained rate of alternative reinforcement provided by the PI schedule, rather than to exposure to within-session reinforcement thinning per se. In both experiments, target responding increased at some point in the session during schedule thinning and continued across the rest of the session. Rats exposed to a PI schedule showed resurgence later in the session and after more cumulative alternative reinforcers than those exposed to an FI schedule. The results suggest the potential importance of further exploring how timing and change-detection mechanisms might be involved in resurgence.

A translational comparison of contingency-based progressive delay procedures and their effects on contextually appropriate behavior

Schedule thinning is an essential step in treating problem behavior, yet little research has been conducted to determine the method associated with sustained treatment effects. A frequently used method for thinning reinforcement is contingency-based progressive delay, which requires the individual to meet some criteria before the reinforcers are returned. The response requirement could be dependent on (a) contextually appropriate behavior (differential reinforcement of alternative behavior-based thinning) or (b) absence of problem behavior (differential reinforcement of other behavior-based thinning). A translational arrangement with college students was implemented to determine the effects of these 2 response requirements. Tolerance was observed regardless of thinning method and was indicated by low rates of responding to the analogue problem behavior; however, more contextually appropriate behavior occurred during differential reinforcement of alternative behavior-based thinning. These results support the use of response requirements for behaviors that are expected of the individual when reinforcement is not immediately forthcoming.

A Comparison of Demand Fading and a Dense Schedule of Reinforcement During Functional Communication Training

Ample research indicates that functional communication training (FCT) is an effective intervention to reduce challenging behavior. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of demand fading on escape-maintained challenging behavior, mands, and task completion for 2 children with autism spectrum disorder. The study utilized an embedded reversal and alternating-treatments design to evaluate the efficacy of the intervention and compare the efficacy of the demand fading and dense schedule conditions. During FCT, participants were taught 2 mand topographies, one of which was associated with demand fading. FCT with and without demand fading resulted in decreases in challenging behavior for both participants. FCT with demand fading resulted in higher task completion for both participants. The effect of demand fading on the rate of mands varied by participant. Results provide further support for the use of FCT. The importance of intervention fading in the treatment of challenging behavior is discussed.

Using Principles from Applied Behaviour Analysis to Address an Undesired Behaviour: Functional Analysis and Treatment of Jumping Up in Companion Dogs

The aim of this study was to investigate the feasibility and effectiveness of procedures successfully used in human related applied behaviour analysis practices to the field of clinical animal behaviour. Experiment 1 involved functional analyses to identify the reinforcement contingencies maintaining jumping up behaviour in five dogs. Experiment 2 comprised teaching dog owners a noncontingent reinforcement intervention (i.e., time-based reinforcement) via behavioural skills training. Single-case experimental methods were implemented in both experiments. The results of Experiment 1 showed that access to a tangible (dogs D01, D02, D03, and D04) and owner attention (dog D05) were reliably maintaining the jumping up behaviour. Experiment 2 demonstrated that noncontingent reinforcement effectively reduced jumping in three out of four dogs (Tau -0.59, CI 90% [-1-0.15], p = 0.026, Tau -1, CI 90% [-1--0.55], p = 0.0003, and Tau -0.32, CI 90% [-0.76-0.11], p = 0.22 for dyads D01, D02, and D05, respectively), and that behavioural skills training was successful in teaching owners to perform a dog training intervention with high fidelity. Although the results are promising, more canine-related research into functional analysis and noncontingent reinforcement, as well as implementation of behavioural skills training with animal caregivers, is needed.

Using Schedule-Correlated Stimuli During Functional Communication Training to Promote the Rapid Transfer of Treatment Effects

Prior research has shown that bringing functional communication responses under the discriminative control of schedule-correlated stimuli facilitates rapid reinforcement schedule thinning and the transfer of functional communication training (FCT) treatment effects to other therapists and settings. In Experiment 1, we extended this body of research by rapidly transferring FCT treatment effects to a caregiver, despite the caregiver's unique and lengthy history of reinforcement of the child's destructive behavior. In Experiment 2, we evaluated the degree to which FCT treatment effects transferred to another participant's caregivers when the caregivers implemented FCT with and without schedule-correlated stimuli. Rapid transfer of FCT treatment effects occurred only when caregivers used the schedule-correlated stimuli. We discuss the use of schedule-correlated stimuli within FCT procedures as a method of programming for generalization when extending treatment to caregivers.

Efficiency in functional analysis of problem behavior: A quantitative and qualitative review

Originating in the mid-1960s, functional analysis (FA) has become the gold standard method for understanding the environmental variables that come to shape and maintain problematic behaviors such as aggression, self-injury, and property destruction. Over the decades, a number of studies have refined FA methods, attempting to improve the overall efficiency of the analysis through experimental design and procedural modifications. In the present review, we used ongoing visual-inspection criteria and basic probability theory to compare and analyze levels of efficiency across FA types. The multielement design and synthesized contingency analyses were about equally efficient with respect to the mean number of sessions conducted per function tested, and the trial-based and synthesized contingency analyses were the 2 most efficient with respect to the mean duration per function tested. We discuss the implications of these findings in the broader context of efficiency and provide recommendations for maximizing efficiency during an FA. We also discuss other qualitative procedural details that may influence the overall efficiency of an FA.

Resurgence when challenging alternative behavior with progressive ratios in children and pigeons

Resurgence is defined as the recurrence of a previously reinforced and then extinguished target response when reducing or eliminating a more recently reinforced alternative response. In experiments with children and pigeons, we evaluated patterns of resurgence across and within sessions through decreases in reinforcer availability by challenging alternative responding with extinction and progressive-ratio schedules. In Phase 1, we reinforced only target responding. In Phase 2, we extinguished target responding while reinforcing an alternative response. Finally, Phase 3 assessed resurgence by (a) extinguishing alternative responding versus (b) introducing a progressive-ratio schedule of reinforcement for alternative responding. In both children and pigeons, resurgence of target responding occurred in both conditions but generally was greater when assessed during extinction than with progressive ratios. Importantly, within-session patterns of resurgence did not differ between testing with progressive ratios and extinction. Resurgence with progressive ratios tended to be greater with longer durations between reinforcers but we observed similar findings with only simulated reinforcers during extinction testing. Therefore, the present investigation reveals that the events contributing to instances of resurgence remain to be understood, and presents an approach from which to examine variables influencing within-session patterns of resurgence.

Generalization and maintenance of functional communication training for individuals with developmental disabilities: A systematic and quality review

BACKGROUND

Functional communication training (FCT) is considered an evidence-based practice for treating problem behavior in individuals with developmental disabilities (e.g. autism, intellectual disabilities, down syndrome, etc.). However, there is little known on how to sustain behavioral change following FCT interventions. This systematic and quality review synthesizes the current literature base evaluating the maintenance and generalization of behavioral effects following FCT.

METHOD

A systematic review identified 37 studies that met the pre-set inclusion criteria. Those studies were summarized in terms of: (a) generalization dimension, (b) generalization assessment design, (c) maintenance assessment design, (d) maintenance and generalization teaching strategy, and (e) latency to maintenance probes. All studies employed single-case research designs and were evaluated using the What Works Clearinghouse pilot single-case research standards (Kratochwill et al., 2013) as adapted by Maggin, Briesch, and Chafouleas (2013). Maintenance and generalization data were evaluated using a researcher-developed rubric based on the WWC standards.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Results indicate that 30 studies met standards or met standards with reservations while only six studies also met all of the maintenance and generalization standards. Of the six studies, five did not implement any additional strategies beyond the contacting natural contingencies that is inherent in the FCT intervention. Implications for future research and practice are discussed.

Systematic Changes in Preference for Schedule-Thinning Arrangements as a Function of Relative Reinforcement Density

We treated destructive behavior maintained by both social-positive (i.e., access to tangibles) and social-negative (i.e., escape from demands) reinforcement in an individual diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder using functional communication training (FCT). We then thinned the schedule of reinforcement for the tangible function using a multiple schedule (mult FCT) and later thinned the availability of escape using a chained schedule (chain FCT). Both treatments proved effective at maintaining functional communicative responses while decreasing destructive behavior to near-zero levels. In addition, treatment effects maintained when we rapidly thinned mult FCT to the terminal schedule. Throughout chain-FCT schedule thinning, we assessed client preference for each schedule-thinning arrangement (mult FCT or chain FCT) using a concurrent-chains procedure. Client preference reliably shifted from chain FCT to mult FCT as the response requirement increased and the proportion of session spent in reinforcement began to favor mult FCT. We discuss the clinical implications of these findings.

Predictive validity and efficiency of ongoing visual-inspection criteria for interpreting functional analyses

Prior research has evaluated the reliability and validity of structured criteria for visually inspecting functional-analysis (FA) results on a post-hoc basis, after completion of the FA (i.e., post-hoc visual inspection [PHVI]; e.g., Hagopian et al., 1997). However, most behavior analysts inspect FAs using ongoing visual inspection (OVI) as the FA is implemented, and the validity of applying structured criteria during OVI remains unknown. In this investigation, we evaluated the predictive validity and efficiency of applying structured criteria on an ongoing basis by comparing the interim interpretations produced through OVI with (a) the final interpretations produced by PHVI, (b) the authors' post-hoc interpretations (PHAI) reported in the research studies, and (c) the consensus interpretations of these two post-hoc analyses. Ongoing visual inspection predicted the results of PHVI and the consensus interpretations with a very high degree of accuracy, and PHAI with a reasonably high degree of accuracy. Furthermore, the PHVI and PHAI results involved 32 FA sessions, on average, whereas the OVI required only 19 FA sessions to accurately identify the function(s) of destructive behavior (i.e., a 41% increase in efficiency). We discuss these findings relative to other methods designed to increase the accuracy and efficiency of FAs.

Additional free reinforcers increase persistence of problem behavior in a clinical context: A partial replication of laboratory findings

Behavioral momentum theory is a quantitative framework used to characterize the persistence of behavior during response disruptors as a function of baseline stimulus-reinforcer relations. Results of several investigations have shown that alternative reinforcement can increase the resistance to change of a target response during extinction. In the present study, concomitant variable-interval fixed-time schedules of reinforcement for problem behavior were employed to simulate naturalistic situations involving the superimposition of response-independent reinforcers on a baseline schedule of reinforcement for problem behavior, as in the common use of noncontingent reinforcement treatments. Resistance to change of problem behavior was assessed during postsession periods of extinction by comparing response rates in extinction following sessions with and without additional reinforcer deliveries arranged by fixed-time schedules. For 2 out of 3 participants, problem behavior tended to be more resistant to extinction following periods in which additional fixed-time reinforcers were delivered. These results are discussed in terms of potential effects of noncontingent reinforcement on problem behavior when the intervention is discontinued or implemented without good treatment integrity.

Employing a Fixed-Lean Multiple Schedule in the Treatment of Challenging Behavior for Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder

Despite its utility, there is limited applied research on employing fixed-lean (FL) schedules of reinforcement in treatment packages to address challenging behavior. One potential reason is that abrupt shifts to terminal schedules of reinforcement have been associated with immediate increases in challenging behavior before subsiding to clinically acceptable levels. The purpose of the present study was to (a) provide evidence demonstrating the utility of a FL multiple schedule (MS) in the treatment of challenging behavior in applied settings, (b) examine the potential effects of alternative stimuli on challenging behavior during a FL MS, and (c) assess the social validity of this treatment package with participants and caregivers. The results of this study showed low levels of challenging behavior and discriminated mands during the FL MS, but no evidence to support the inclusion of alternative stimuli. In addition, caregivers of both participants reported high levels of satisfaction with the treatment package. Implications for research and clinical practice are discussed.

Multiple schedules in practical application: Research trends and implications for future investigation

Researchers began studying multiple schedules in basic laboratories, but recent advances have extended research on multiple schedules to a wide variety of socially significant applications, especially during the last decade. Applied researchers have used multiple schedules to (a) promote stimulus control over high-rate appropriate behaviors, (b) thin the schedule of reinforcement following functional communication training, and (c) obtain stimulus control over problem behaviors maintained by automatic reinforcement. In the current paper, we reviewed 31 studies with 147 applications identified through a search of the applied literature on multiple schedules. Using these studies, we (a) reviewed the empirical literature on multiple schedules, (b) recommended multiple-schedule procedures that serve as best practice guidelines for applied behavior analysts, (c) identified the generality and boundaries of current knowledge about the effectiveness of multiple schedules, and (d) critically analyzed the literature to provide directions for future multiple-schedule research.

Stimulus Fading and Response Elaboration in Differential Reinforcement for Alternative Behavior

A hallmark of applied behavior analysis is the development of function-based interventions for problem behavior. A widely recommended function-based intervention is differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA), in which reinforcement is contingent upon socially acceptable alternatives to problem behavior (e.g., teaching communication skills). Typically, DRA is introduced under rich schedules of reinforcement. Although effective for initiating behavior change, rich schedules are often impractical in the natural setting. In this study, we evaluated the extent to which a stimulus fading program could be employed to elaborate alternative behavior (mands) in two individuals diagnosed with an Autism Spectrum Disorder. For both participants, problem behavior was reduced substantially upon implementation of the DRA procedure. Further, problem behavior rates remained low and mand rates decreased to more practical levels as the DRA behavioral requirements increased during the fading program. The fading approach demonstrated in this paper may be a useful component of intervention packages for clinicians.

Uncovering the evidence for behavioral interventions with individuals with fragile X syndrome: a systematic review

Fragile X syndrome (FXS) is associated with a wide range of cognitive, emotional, and behavioral difficulties. Although there is considerable research on the behavioral phenotype of FXS, few empirical studies of behavioral interventions with this population have been identified. Through a hand search of 34 behavioral journals, we examined the evidence base for behavioral interventions with individuals with FXS and in light of the current state of knowledge regarding the FXS behavioral phenotype. Systematic review procedures were used to identify behavioral intervention studies that included at least one participant with FXS, extract and summarize the data on several relevant dimensions, and rate the methodological quality of the studies. Results revealed 31 intervention studies with a small number of participants with FXS. Overall, results suggest a behavioral approach to intervention with individuals with FXS shows promise. Future research focused on individuals with FXS will be necessary to continue to examine differences in response to intervention and interventions that specifically address phenotypic characteristics.

Decreasing excessive functional communication responses while treating destructive behavior using response restriction

Functional communication training (FCT) is an established treatment for destructive behavior that missucceeds in about 37% of cases when the reinforcement schedule for the functional communication response (FCR) is thinned using multiples schedules (mult FCT; Hagopian, Boelter, & Jarmolowicz, 2011). In this investigation, we evaluated the use of response restriction FCT (RR FCT) in a cohort of patients with poorly differentiated responding of the FCR during mult FCT. Results showed that (a) RR FCT maintained high rates of correct FCRs during the reinforcement component of RR FCT without increasing destructive behavior; (b) children displayed highly discriminated FCRs when an FCR card and a control card were simultaneously available during the reinforcement component of RR FCT; and (c) near-zero rates of destructive behavior were observed during the last five sessions of the terminal reinforcement schedule. Results are discussed relative to differences between mult FCT and RR FCT and successive and simultaneous discriminations.

How should periods without social interaction be scheduled? Children's preference for practical schedules of positive reinforcement

Several studies have shown that children prefer contingent reinforcement (CR) rather than yoked noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) when continuous reinforcement is programmed in the CR schedule. Preference has not, however, been evaluated for practical schedules that involve CR. In Study 1, we assessed 5 children's preference for obtaining social interaction via a multiple schedule (periods of fixed-ratio 1 reinforcement alternating with periods of extinction), a briefly signaled delayed reinforcement schedule, and an NCR schedule. The multiple schedule promoted the most efficient level of responding. In general, children chose to experience the multiple schedule and avoided the delay and NCR schedules, indicating that they preferred multiple schedules as the means to arrange practical schedules of social interaction. In Study 2, we evaluated potential controlling variables that influenced 1 child's preference for the multiple schedule and found that the strong positive contingency was the primary variable.

A component analysis of schedule thinning during functional communication training

One limitation of functional communication training (FCT) is that individuals may request reinforcement via the functional communication response (FCR) at exceedingly high rates. Multiple schedules with alternating periods of reinforcement and extinction of the FCR combined with gradually lengthening the extinction-component interval can effectively address this limitation. However, the extent to which each of these components contributes to the effectiveness of the overall approach remains uncertain. In the current investigation, we evaluated the first component by comparing rates of the FCR and problem behavior under mixed and multiple schedules and evaluated the second component by rapidly switching from dense mixed and multiple schedules to lean multiple schedules without gradually thinning the density of reinforcement. Results indicated that multiple schedules decreased the overall rate of reinforcement for the FCR and maintained the strength of the FCR and low rates of problem behavior without gradually thinning the reinforcement schedule.

Noncontingent reinforcement: a further examination of schedule effects during treatment

We conducted 2 studies to determine whether dense and thin NCR schedules exert different influences over behavior and whether these influences change as dense schedules are thinned. In Study 1, we observed that thin as well as dense NCR schedules effectively decreased problem behavior exhibited by 3 individuals. In Study 2, we compared the effects of 2 NCR schedules in multielement designs, one with and the other without an extinction (EXT) component, while both schedules were thinned. Problem behavior remained low as the NCR schedule with EXT was thinned, but either (a) did not decrease initially or (b) subsequently increased as the NCR schedule without EXT was thinned. These results suggest that dense schedules of NCR decrease behavior by altering its motivating operation but that extinction occurs as the NCR schedule is thinned. The benefits and limitations of using dense or thin NCR schedules are discussed.

Effects of high, low, and thinning rates of alternative reinforcement on response elimination and resurgence

A common treatment for operant problem behavior is alternative reinforcement. When alternative reinforcement is removed or reduced, however, resurgence of the target behavior can occur. Shahan and Sweeney (2011) developed a quantitative model of resurgence based on behavioral momentum theory that suggests higher rates of alternative reinforcement result in faster response elimination and greater resurgence when removed, whereas lower rates of alternative reinforcement result in slower response elimination but are followed by less resurgence. Thus, the present study was designed to examine whether faster target response elimination and less resurgence could be achieved by beginning with a high rate of alternative reinforcement and gradually thinning it such that a low rate is ultimately removed during a simulated treatment lapse. Results showed that high rates of alternative reinforcement were more effective than low or thinning rates at target response suppression but resulted in resurgence when discontinued. Low and thinning rates, on the other hand, were less effective at response suppression but target responding did not increase when alternative reinforcement was discontinued. The quantitative model cannot currently account for the finding that lower-rate alternative reinforcement may not effectively disrupt behavior relative to an extinction only control. Relative advantages of high, low, thinning, or no alternative reinforcement are discussed with respect to suppression of target response rate during treatment, resurgence when alternative reinforcement is removed, and alternative response persistence, while taking into account differences between this animal model and modern applied behavior analytic treatments.

Reinforcement schedule thinning following functional communication training: review and recommendations

This paper extends the Tiger, Hanley, and Bruzek (2008) review of functional communication training (FCT) by reviewing the published literature on reinforcement schedule thinning following FCT. As noted by Tiger et al. and others, schedule thinning may be necessary when the newly acquired communication response occurs excessively, to the extent that reinforcing it consistently is not practical in the natural environment. We provide a review of this literature including a discussion of each of the more commonly used schedule arrangements used for this purpose, outcomes obtained, a description of methods for progressing toward the terminal schedule, and a description of supplemental treatment components aimed at maintaining low levels of problem behavior during schedule thinning. Recommendations for schedule thinning are then provided. Finally, conceptual issues related to the reemergence of problem behavior during schedule thinning and areas for future research are discussed.

Behavioral intervention for problem behavior in children with fragile X syndrome

Parents and professionals typically report problem behavior as a significant concern for children with fragile X syndrome. In the present study, the authors explored whether behaviorally based interventions would result in a reduction in problem behavior and an improvement in quality of life for 3 children with fragile X syndrome and their families. A multiple baseline design was used to demonstrate intervention effects for specific high-priority contexts (i.e., bedtime, running errands, and toileting). A multicomponent intervention plan was developed to teach the parents and child to effectively cope with the particular context. After intervention, there were substantial improvements in problem behavior and family quality of life within the given contexts. Results of this study demonstrated the effectiveness of behavioral intervention for children with fragile X syndrome.

An analysis of functional communication training as an empirically supported treatment for problem behavior displayed by individuals with intellectual disabilities

This paper examines the literature on the use of functional communication training (FCT) as a treatment for problem behavior displayed by individuals with intellectual disabilities (ID). Criteria for empirically supported treatments developed by Divisions 12 and 16 of the American Psychological Association (Kratochwill & Stoiber, 2002; Task Force, 1995) and adapted by Jennett and Hagopian (2008) for evaluation of single-case research studies were used to examine the support for FCT. Results indicated that FCT far exceeds criteria to be designated as a well-established treatment for problem behavior exhibited by children with ID and children with autism spectrum disorder, and can be characterized as probably efficacious with adults.

Developing stimulus control of the high-rate social-approach responses of an adult with mental retardation: a multiple-schedule evaluation

We evaluated a multiple schedule in which the extinction (S-) components were signaled overtly by a black lanyard and the reinforcement (S+) components were not correlated with any programmed stimuli in developing stimulus control over the high-rate social-approach responses of an adult with mental retardation. Responding was consistently low in the presence of the S- and consistently high when the lanyard was absent (i.e., the S+ condition). Component durations were thinned successfully to a level that was manageable for caregivers.

An evaluation of resurgence during treatment with functional communication training

Extinction-induced resurgence is the recurrence of previously reinforced behavior when another behavior is placed on extinction (Lieving, Hagopian, Long, & O'Connor, 2004). This phenomenon may account for some instances of treatment relapse when problem behavior recovers during extinction-based treatments. The current study sought to determine whether resurgence of problem behavior would reliably occur with 5 participants who received treatment with FCT. Results showed that problem behavior reemerged for all but 1 participant when the communicative response was exposed to extinction or thin schedules of reinforcement. These findings suggest that resurgence may account for some instances of response recovery during treatment, and that the described procedure may be useful for the further study of resurgence and eventual prevention of this phenomenon.

An evaluation of resurgence during treatment with functional communication training

Extinction-induced resurgence is the recurrence of previously reinforced behavior when another behavior is placed on extinction (Lieving, Hagopian, Long, & O'Connor, 2004). This phenomenon may account for some instances of treatment relapse when problem behavior recovers during extinction-based treatments. The current study sought to determine whether resurgence of problem behavior would reliably occur with 5 participants who received treatment with FCT. Results showed that problem behavior reemerged for all but 1 participant when the communicative response was exposed to extinction or thin schedules of reinforcement. These findings suggest that resurgence may account for some instances of response recovery during treatment, and that the described procedure may be useful for the further study of resurgence and eventual prevention of this phenomenon.

A review of empirical support for differential reinforcement of alternative behavior

Differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA) is one of the most common behavior analytic interventions used to decrease unwanted behavior. We reviewed the DRA literature from the past 30 years to identify the aspects that are thoroughly researched and those that would benefit from further emphasis. We found and coded 116 empirical studies that used DRA, later grouping them into categories that met APA Division 12 Task Force criteria. We found that DRA has been successful at reducing behaviors on a continuum from relatively minor problems like prelinguistic communication to life-threatening failure to thrive. DRA with and without extinction is well established for treating destructive behavior of those with developmental disabilities, and to combat food refusal.

The effectiveness of and preschoolers' preferences for variations of multiple-schedule arrangements

Multiple schedules of reinforcement have been used to teach children to recruit attention only when it is available, thereby minimizing disruptive requesting during instructional activities. This procedure involves alternating periods of continuous reinforcement (CRF) with periods of extinction and correlating each period with a distinct and continuous discriminative stimulus. The present study evaluated the effectiveness of and children's preferences for multiple schedules in which (a) two different stimuli, one correlated with reinforcement (S+) and another correlated with extinction (S-), were presented; (b) only an S+ was presented (i.e., no stimulus was correlated with extinction), and (c) neither an S+ nor an S- was presented (i.e., a mixed schedule). S+/S- and S+ arrangements were similarly effective for 7 children, but 3 preferred the S+/S- condition and 4 preferred the S+ condition. Correlational analyses suggested that children who responded more effectively given the S- (discrimination indexes were relatively high) preferred the S+/S- condition, whereas children who responded less effectively given the S- preferred the S+ condition. The implications of these findings for arranging multiple schedules for social responses are discussed.