Multiple schedules of conjugate reinforcement and extinction: A translational model for assessing automatically reinforced behavior

This study evaluated the extent to which a conjugate reinforcement schedule (CONJ) involving a contingency between pedaling a stationary bike and viewing a preferred movie could serve as a translational preparation for the analysis of automatically reinforced behavior. In part, researchers examined whether providing participants with either an accurate or an inaccurate rule about the extinction (EXT) component of a multiple schedule (MULT) contributed to the development of control by the MULT (CONJ EXT) schedule. Results show schedule control emerged for four of five participants who received the accurate rule and none of the five participants who received the inaccurate rule. In addition, participants who received accurate rules typically increased pedaling during CONJ components that followed two consecutive EXT components, suggesting that they experienced deprivation for audio and visual stimulation generated by pedaling. These preliminary findings suggest that researchers could use this translational preparation to identify matched interventions for some automatically reinforced behavior.

Effects of advance notice on transition-related pausing in pigeons

Transitions between tasks can produce behavioral disruptions that are characterized as problematic. Advance notice, a procedure designed to reduce disruptions, involves presenting a stimulus to warn of the end of the ongoing activity and the nature of the upcoming activity. Clinical evaluations of advance notice have produced mixed results. We studied advance notice in a controlled laboratory setting. Pigeons' keypecking was maintained on a multiple schedule with 2 fixed-ratio components. In the lean component, completing the ratio produced brief access to food; in the rich component, completing the ratio produced longer access. Disruptions in operant behavior, measured as pauses in pecking, were reliably produced in the transition from a rich component to a lean one. Advance notice was provided by flashing the houselight before transitions to lean components. Advance notice did not reduce pausing in the rich-lean transition; instead, it tended to increase it. When the flashing houselight warned of a transition but was equally likely to be followed by the rich component as the lean one, the stimulus had no reliable effect on pausing. Despite its limitations as a translational model of clinical settings, this experiment suggests that clinical use of advance notice should be approached with caution.

Schedule Thinning Following Functional Communication Training: Effects of Chained and Multiple Schedules

Functional communication training (FCT) is used to reduce rates of problem behavior by teaching communicative responses that access functionally equivalent reinforcers. During FCT, the communicative response is typically placed on a dense schedule of reinforcement that is unlikely to be maintained in the natural environment. Experiment 1 evaluated the effects of two schedule-thinning procedures (chained schedules and multiple schedules) on problem behavior maintained by escape from demands for three participants following FCT. The chained and multiple-schedule procedures were effective in reducing rates of problem behavior. Compliance increased under both schedules, but the chained schedule resulted in higher levels of compliance with two participants. In Experiment 2, participants' preference for the chained or multiple-schedule procedure was evaluated using a modified concurrent-chain procedure. One participant preferred the chained schedule. One participant preferred the multiple schedule. One participant did not appear to discriminate between conditions.

Evaluating skills correlated with discriminated responding in multiple schedule arrangements

One potential solution for excessively high-rate functional communication responses (FCR) is to establish stimulus control of the FCR through a multiple schedule. However, several studies have demonstrated difficulty with establishing discriminated responding across multiple schedule components. The primary aim of the current study was to evaluate how participants' skills related to color discrimination may be related to the emergence of discriminated responding in a multiple schedule with colors as the schedule-correlated stimuli. Three secondary aims of the current study were to evaluate: a) varied multiple schedule arrangements, b) if topographically dissimilar stimuli facilitated the emergence of discriminated responding, and c) if employing different colored stimuli across multiple schedule arrangements reduced the likelihood that discriminated responding emerged simultaneously across varied arrangements. Nine participants' ability to match, select, tact, and respond intraverbally to colors was assessed, and 1 of 2 evaluations of multiple schedule arrangements were conducted. Results indicated that participants' ability to select and tact colors was strongly correlated with the efficacy of standard multiple schedule arrangements. Additionally, multiple schedule arrangements employing topographically dissimilar stimuli were observed to be equally as effective as standard arrangements and the inclusion of different colored stimuli across arrangements did not reduce the likelihood that discriminated responding emerged simultaneously across all conditions, when it was observed to emerge at all.

Incorporating discriminative stimuli into functional communication training with augmentative and alternative communication devices: a tutorial

Functional communication training (FCT) is a commonly used and effective treatment for problem behavior maintained by social reinforcement (e.g., an individual engages in self-injurious behavior to gain access to adult attention). FCT involves teaching an individual to emit an appropriate communication response to access the reinforcer maintaining problem behavior (e.g., pressing a "Play, please" symbol on a device to gain the communication partner's attention) and withholding that reinforcer following problem behavior (e.g., the communication partner minimizes attention-following problem behavior and waits for a communication response). Techniques such as incorporating discriminative stimuli (e.g., differently colored cards) can make FCT more practical for caregivers by teaching individuals when reinforcement is and is not available for communication responses while simultaneously mitigating treatment relapse. Despite the effectiveness of FCT with discriminative stimuli, no studies have leveraged the capabilities of augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) devices by embedding discriminative stimuli within AAC software (e.g., by coloring communication symbols or grids). Our tutorial provides a comprehensive overview of how practitioners can incorporate FCT with discriminative stimuli into practice and includes video models of how to design these treatments on two common AAC apps.

Further Analysis of the Immediate and Subsequent Effect of RIRD on Vocal Stereotypy

Although numerous studies have shown that response interruption and redirection (RIRD) can decrease vocal stereotypy displayed by children with autism spectrum disorder, relatively few have evaluated the subsequent effects of RIRD. We evaluated the immediate (when a change agent implemented RIRD) and subsequent (after a change agent discontinued RIRD) effects of RIRD on two participants' vocal stereotypy using a nonconcurrent multiple baseline design with an embedded reversal design combined with a multiple schedule. As a part of the analysis, we conducted the fourth component 25 min after the third component. In addition, we compared the effects of RIRD with 5-min and 20-min components on both participants' vocal stereotypy. Results show that (a) RIRD during either 5-min or 20-min components decreased each participant's immediate engagement in vocal stereotypy, (b) only RIRD during 20-min components decreased each participant's subsequent engagement in vocal stereotypy relative to the no intervention component, and (c) the subsequent effects of RIRD did not extend into the fourth component for either participant.

Evaluating competing activities to enhance functional communication training during reinforcement schedule thinning

Arranging periods in which requests for reinforcement are denied in a multiple schedule may result in increased destructive behavior during these periods for individuals who receive functional communication training (FCT) as treatment for severe destructive behavior. Providing access to competing activities during periods of reinforcer unavailability has been shown to minimize destructive behavior. We evaluated methods to identify effective competing activities for use when thinning reinforcement availability in a multiple schedule and compared competing activities embedded within the multiple schedule using an alternating-treatments design. Results suggested at least one competing activity facilitated favorable treatment outcomes for each participant. We discuss building on this empirical approach to identify effective competing activities for use during reinforcement schedule thinning.

Differential stimulus control of drug-seeking: multimodal reinstatement

In animal models of substance-use disorder, individuals that repeatedly self-administer drugs of abuse have long-lasting neuronal adaptations that do not occur ostensibly in control animals only exposed to natural reinforcers (e.g. food). Because any treatment for substance-use disorder will be given to individuals with drug-taking histories, adequate dissociation of the specific neurobehavioral mechanisms underlying drug reinforcement, natural reinforcement and their associated cue effects requires an experimental model that exposes individuals to both reinforcer conditions, along with their associated stimuli. Furthermore, contingent stimuli that reinforce drug seeking through second-order relationships may produce reinstatement of drug seeking through different neurobehavioral means than non-contingent exposure to stimuli that signal the availability of a drug reinforcer, effectively producing different modes of stimulus-induced reinstatement. Toward experimental isolation of the relationships mentioned, herein, we used a within-session multiple schedule of reinforcement containing both discriminative (S^D ) and conditioned (CS) stimuli to study stimulus control of drug-taking and food-taking behavior, along with how these functionally distinct cues may differentially reinstate drug-seeking and food-seeking behavior within a single animal. We demonstrate specific stimulus control over drug and food taking; furthermore, we demonstrate that the same stimulus (i.e. cue light) operating as an S^D or CS produced differential reinstatement of drug-taking and food-taking behavior. The results suggest that contingent CSs and non-contingent S^D s produce reinstatement through different neurobehavioral processes and, within-session multiple schedules, can be used to study different modes of specific stimulus control over drug and food seeking in a single animal with both drug-taking and food-taking history.

Systematic Changes in Preference for Schedule-Thinning Arrangements as a Function of Relative Reinforcement Density

We treated destructive behavior maintained by both social-positive (i.e., access to tangibles) and social-negative (i.e., escape from demands) reinforcement in an individual diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder using functional communication training (FCT). We then thinned the schedule of reinforcement for the tangible function using a multiple schedule (mult FCT) and later thinned the availability of escape using a chained schedule (chain FCT). Both treatments proved effective at maintaining functional communicative responses while decreasing destructive behavior to near-zero levels. In addition, treatment effects maintained when we rapidly thinned mult FCT to the terminal schedule. Throughout chain-FCT schedule thinning, we assessed client preference for each schedule-thinning arrangement (mult FCT or chain FCT) using a concurrent-chains procedure. Client preference reliably shifted from chain FCT to mult FCT as the response requirement increased and the proportion of session spent in reinforcement began to favor mult FCT. We discuss the clinical implications of these findings.

Does a negative discriminative stimulus function as a punishing consequence?

The study and use of punishment in behavioral treatments has been constrained by ethical concerns. However, there remains a need to reduce harmful behavior unable to be reduced by differential-reinforcement procedures. We investigated whether response-contingent presentation of a negative discriminative stimulus previously correlated with an absence of reinforcers would punish behavior maintained by positive reinforcers. Across four conditions, pigeons were trained to discriminate between a positive discriminative stimulus (S+) signaling the presence of food, and a negative discriminative stimulus (S-) signaling the absence of food. Once learned, every five responses on average to the S+ produced S- for a duration of 1.5 s. S+ response rate decreased for a majority of pigeons when responses produced S-, compared to when they did not, or when a neutral control stimulus was presented. In Condition 5, choice between two concurrently presented S+ alternatives shifted away from the alternative producing S-, despite a 1:1 reinforcer ratio. Therefore, presenting contingent S- stimuli punishes operant behavior maintained on simple schedules and in choice situations. Development of negative discriminative stimuli as punishers of operant behavior could provide an effective approach to behavioral treatments for problem behavior and subverting suboptimal choices involved in addictions.

Further Evaluation of the Use of Multiple Schedules for Behavior Maintained by Negative Reinforcement

One potential limitation of functional communication training (FCT) is that after the functional communication response (FCR) is taught, the response may be emitted at high rates or inappropriate times. Thus, schedule thinning is often necessary. Previous research has demonstrated that multiple schedules can facilitate schedule thinning by establishing discriminative control of the communication response while maintaining low rates of problem behavior. To date, most applied research evaluating the clinical utility of multiple schedules has done so in the context of behavior maintained by positive reinforcement (e.g., attention or tangible items). This study examined the use of a multiple schedule with alternating Fixed Ratio (FR 1)/extinction (EXT) components for two individuals with developmental disabilities who emitted escape-maintained problem behavior. Although problem behavior remained low during all FCT and multiple schedule phases, the use of the multiple schedule alone did not result in discriminated manding.

How should periods without social interaction be scheduled? Children's preference for practical schedules of positive reinforcement

Several studies have shown that children prefer contingent reinforcement (CR) rather than yoked noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) when continuous reinforcement is programmed in the CR schedule. Preference has not, however, been evaluated for practical schedules that involve CR. In Study 1, we assessed 5 children's preference for obtaining social interaction via a multiple schedule (periods of fixed-ratio 1 reinforcement alternating with periods of extinction), a briefly signaled delayed reinforcement schedule, and an NCR schedule. The multiple schedule promoted the most efficient level of responding. In general, children chose to experience the multiple schedule and avoided the delay and NCR schedules, indicating that they preferred multiple schedules as the means to arrange practical schedules of social interaction. In Study 2, we evaluated potential controlling variables that influenced 1 child's preference for the multiple schedule and found that the strong positive contingency was the primary variable.

Immediate and subsequent effects of matched and unmatched stimuli on targeted vocal stereotypy and untargeted motor stereotypy

The authors evaluated the effects of matched and unmatched stimuli on immediate and subsequent engagement in targeted vocal stereotypy (Experiment 1) and untargeted motor stereotypy (Experiment 2). Results of Experiment 1 showed that (a) matched stimulation decreased immediate engagement in vocal stereotypy for 8 of 11 participants and increased subsequent engagement in vocal stereotypy for only 1 of the 8 participants and (b) unmatched stimulation decreased immediate engagement in vocal stereotypy for only 1 of 10 participants and did not increase subsequent engagement in vocal stereotypy for this participant. Results of Experiment 2 showed that for 8 of 14 participants, untargeted stereotypy increased when the matched or unmatched stimulus was present, after it was removed, or both. The authors briefly discuss the potential clinical implications of using matched stimulation to decrease vocal stereotypy and limitations of the findings.

Evaluation of the immediate and subsequent effects of response interruption and redirection on vocal stereotypy

We evaluated 2 3-component multiple-schedule sequences-a response interruption and redirection (RIRD) treatment sequence and a no-interaction control sequence-using a multielement design. With this design, we were able to evaluate the immediate and subsequent effects of RIRD on 2 participants' vocal stereotypy. For both participants, RIRD produced an immediate decrease in vocal stereotypy and did not result in a subsequent increase.

Influences on cocaine tolerance assessed under a multiple conjunctive schedule of reinforcement

Under multiple schedules of reinforcement, previous research has generally observed tolerance to the rate-decreasing effects of cocaine that has been dependent on schedule-parameter size in the context of fixed-ratio (FR) schedules, but not under the context of fixed-interval (FI) schedules of reinforcement. The current experiment examined the effects of cocaine on key-pecking responses of White Carneau pigeons maintained under a three-component multiple conjunctive FI (10 s, 30 s, & 120 s) FR (5 responses) schedule of food presentation. Dose-effect curves representing the effects of presession cocaine on responding were assessed in the context of (1) acute administration of cocaine (2) chronic administration of cocaine and (3) daily administration of saline. Chronic administration of cocaine generally resulted in tolerance to the response-rate decreasing effects of cocaine, and that tolerance was generally independent of relative FI value, as measured by changes in ED50 values. Daily administration of saline decreased ED50 values to those observed when cocaine was administered acutely. The results show that adding a FR requirement to FI schedules is not sufficient to produce schedule-parameter-specific tolerance. Tolerance to cocaine was generally independent of FI-parameter under the present conjunctive schedules, indicating that a ratio requirement, per se, is not sufficient for tolerance to be dependent on FI parameter.

The effects of delayed reinforcement on variability and repetition of response sequences

Four experiments examined the effects of delays to reinforcement on key peck sequences of pigeons maintained under multiple schedules of contingencies that produced variable or repetitive behavior. In Experiments 1, 2, and 4, in the repeat component only the sequence right-right-left-left earned food, and in the vary component four-response sequences different from the previous 10 earned food. Experiments 1 and 2 examined the effects of nonresetting and resetting delays to reinforcement, respectively. In Experiment 3, in the repeat component sequences had to be the same as one of the previous three, whereas in the vary component sequences had to be different from each of the previous three for food. Experiment 4 compared postreinforcer delays to prereinforcement delays. With immediate reinforcement sequences occurred at a similar rate in the two components, but were less variable in the repeat component. Delays to reinforcement decreased the rate of sequences similarly in both components, but affected variability differently. Variability increased in the repeat component, but was unaffected in the vary component. These effects occurred regardless of the manner in which the delay to reinforcement was programmed or the contingency used to generate repetitive behavior. Furthermore, the effects were unique to prereinforcement delays.